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ÖgeApplication of different strategies to improve aerobic granular sludge process performance for treatment of municipal wastewater(Graduate School, 2022-09-29) Koşar, Şadiye ; Erşahin, Mustafa Evren ; 501162714 ; Environmental Sciences, Engineering and ManagementAerobic granular sludge (AGS) process is an energy-efficient alternative biological wastewater treatment process to the conventional activated sludge (CAS) process which requires high energy and big space. In CAS systems, flocs sized above 0.2 mm are referred as granule. So far flocs and granules could be easily differentiated by size clustering as well as their capabilities of removal for organic matter and nutrients. Surface of the granule has porous morphology, and this allows the substrate penetration and as well as oxygen diffusion into the inner layers of the granule. The diffusion of oxygen is somehow can be a limiting factor for the simultaneous carbon and nutrient removal due to structure of the granule. In many cases, granule has a compact and dense structure that limits the oxygen transfer to the inner core layers of the granule which improves the denitrification and allows better phosphorus (P) removal within the granule. Whereas in some situations, granules have amorphous structure which do not improve any core inside the granule so affects the removal of substrate. Aerobic granules are heavier than flocs formed in waste sludge, so they settle faster, and this improves the settleability of the sludge which further allows to operate in one reactor. For this reason, large sedimentation tanks are not required in AGS systems. Since aerobic, anoxic and anaerobic biological activities take place inside the granule, AGS process offers 25-75% less space and consumes 20-50% less energy compared to conventional activated sludge plants. Nitrification takes place on the surface of the granule during aeration phase and denitrification occurs in the inner layers of the granule under anoxic conditions. P removal is maintained by polyphosphate accumulating organisms (PAOs) that are located in the core part of the granule. PAOs and denitrifiers which are responsible for the denitrification are both heterotrophic organisms and compete for the carbon sources as substrate. For this reason, it is important to have sufficient amount of organic matter for nitrogen (N) and P removal. Since PAOs are located in the inner layer of the granule they are only capable of using organic that are in dissolved form. In municipal wastewater, organic matter is particulate and dissolved forms. Particulate matter reduces N and P removal up to 40% and 46% respectively. Particulate organic matter is turned into dissolved form in the presence of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) which are hydrolyzing them further. Hydrolysis ends up in anaerobic phase when the attached particulate matter on the surface of the granules hydrolyzed and it is uptaken by PAOs and denitrifiers. If dissolved organic matter cannot be consumed by these species, then it would be consumed by the aerobic heterotrophic bacteria on the surface of the granule which further causes filamentous microorganisms' overgrowth. This leads to amorphous structure and disintegration of the granule. In this thesis, the treatability municipal wastewater by AGS process was investigated under different circumstances. Four separate studies were conducted within the scope of this study. In the first study, two different sludge were comparatively investigated as inoculum: (a) waste activated sludge (WAS) taken from the return activated sludge line of an advanced biological wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), (b) WAS taken from the return activated sludge line of a pilot scale high-rate activated sludge (HRAS) system. This study was conducted in two stages: AGS system was seeded with the WAS taken from the return activated sludge line of an advanced biological wastewater treatment plant in the first stage; in the second stage, AGS system was seeded with the mixture of WAS taken from the return activated sludge line of an advanced biological WWTP and WAS of pilot scale HRAS process as volume in proportion of 1:1. This study was performed to reveal the contribution of microorganisms found in the flocculent sludge to the granulation process. Since HRAS process sludge has high settleability and the mixture of WAS with HRAS process as inoculum was expected to enhance the settling properties of granular sludge as well as achieving good treatment performance. Although at the start-up period sludge wash-out occurred and mainly fluffy waste sludge wasted, HRAS process sludge settles faster, and it remained in the reactor. So, in this case especially denitrifiers were mostly washed out of the system which deteriorated system performance compared to the AGS system operated solely with WAS. At the end of this study, WAS waste sludge was chosen as seed sludge for the further studies to obtain aerobic granulation based upon AGS system treatment performance. In the second study, WAS taken from the return activated sludge line of an advanced biological WWTP was used as seed sludge. Study was conducted in two stages: (a) AGS system was fed directly with the synthetic municipal wastewater, (b) AGS system was fed with the pre-settled synthetic municipal wastewater (30 min of settling) to simulate pre-sedimentation tanks in the full-scale wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). With pre-settling application, it was proposed that particulate matter would settle so mainly dissolved organic matter could be introduced to the AGS system. Since AGS system is anaerobically fed, this would improve the nutrient removal by allowing the uptake of organic matter easily by PAOs and denitrifiers. It was shown that up to 60% of particulate matter was removed by settling and as a result carbon/nitrogen (C/N) ratio decreased 20% lead deterioration of the AGS system treatment performance. It was apparent that a combination of pre-sedimentation in AGS process didn't improve the system. In the third study, AGS system was operated in three different stages continuously following each other without having different start-up periods: (a) AGS system was fed directly with raw municipal wastewater, (b) AGS system was fed with the pilot scale HRAS system's effluent (treated wastewater), (c) AGS system was fed with the mixture these two flows: raw municipal wastewater (20%) and HRAS process effluent (80%). Waste sludge taken from the return activated sludge line of an advanced biological wastewater treatment plant was used as inoculum. Firstly, aerobic granulation was maintained by introducing municipal wastewater than HRAS process effluent fed to the system and AGS system performance was followed thoroughly. It was shown that the granule stability remained somehow same, but AGS system performance was affected by decreased C/N ratio. AGS system was fed with the mixture the raw municipal wastewater and HRAS process effluent to improve the system performance. As a result, AGS system performance was improved with the increase in C/N ratio (20% increase compared to feeding with only HRAS process effluent). Thus, HRAS process integration with AGS process was found to be energy efficient configuration. Both systems comparably occupy less space than conventional treatment systems and their integration will definitely improve the effluent quality. In the fourth study, digestibility of AGS which was obtained from the third study was compared to the WAS taken from the return activated sludge line of an advanced biological wastewater treatment plant. It is known that AGS process sludge has low digestibility than WAS. Thus, ultrasonication was applied to improve the solubilization of organic matter for increasing sludge digestibility. Since aerobic granules are clusters of microorganisms that are attached together, they are bigger in size and more compact than WAS flocs. Therefore, relying on their physical differences, it was assumed that ultrasonication would enhance digestibility of the AGS. It was shown that ultrasonication as pre-treatment method led to solubilization for both sludge sources in terms of volatile fatty acids (VFAs), protein and carbohydrates besides causing decrease in particle size. A direct relation found between the release of organic compounds, ammonium, phosphorus and heavy metals with the increase in ultrasonication intensity. Overall results obtained from this thesis showed a comprehensive approach to treat municipal wastewater by AGS process while improving the treatment performance by focusing on inoculum source as well as feeding strategy. Besides, sludge from AGS process was evaluated in terms of soluble products release by applying ultrasonication process compared to the WAS. This thesis would enhance the knowledge on AGS technology in terms of seeding and feeding regimes beneath giving clues for full-scale AGS process applications.
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ÖgeDegradation of industrial micropollutants with sulfate radical–based advanced oxidation processes(Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, 2021) Montazeri, Bahareh ; Arslan Alaton, İdil ; 693111 ; Çevre MühendisliğiOccurrence of micropollutants in wastewaters from the industries poses a serious threat to the environment and many of these contaminants are recalcitrant and/or toxic and/or biologically non-degradable. Therefore, the major concern is to treat the wastewater before being discharge into the environment. Among all these industrial micropollutants, in particular 3,5-dichlorophenol (3,5-DCP) from chlorophenols (CPs), 2,4-dichloroaniline (2,4-DCA) from chloroanilines (CAs) and iprodione (IPR) from hydantoins, have been drawn specific attention due to their commercial importance as raw materials, potential toxicity and refractory nature. 3,5-DCP is directly released to the aquatic environment through various waste streams such as wood pulp bleaching processes. 2,4-DCA is extensively used in manufacturing of pigments, optical brighteners and pharmaceutical agents. IPR as a fungicide is used to prevent gray mold on crops; however, its usage has been banned recently by the European Food Safety Authority. Considering the wide spread usage of the above-mentioned micropollutants and their incomplete removal in conventional industrial and urban wastewater treatment plants; they may end up in the aquatic environment, becoming threats to wildlife. Sulfate radicals (SO4●-)-based advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) have demonstrated that they have the potential to be efficiently applied in removing many organic pollutants from wastewater. In the first part of this study, three persulfate (PS)-mediated AOPs including one homogenous photochemical oxidation processes; ultraviolet-C (UV-C)-activated PS oxidation process (UV-C/PS), and two heterogeneous catalytic oxidation processes; zero-valent iron-activated persulfate oxidation process (ZVI/PS) and zero-valent aluminum-activated persulfate oxidation process (ZVA/PS) were employed in order to investigate the three micropollutants removal in distilled water (DW) and examine the influence of initial PS concentration (0.00 mM-1.00 mM) and pH on the treatment performances. UV-C/PS treatment of 3,5-DCP for all studied PS concentrations resulted in complete 3,5-DCP removal and the 3,5-DCP degradation rate increased by increasing the initial PS concentration which can be explained by an increase in the steady-state concentration of SO4●- generation in reaction solution. Increasing the initial pH to values more than 7.5, resulted in rapid 3,5-DCP degradation. Maximum 3,5-DCP removal efficiency was as 59% by 120 min ZVI/PS (PS=1.00 mM; pH=5.0); however, complete 3,5-DCP removal was obtained by decreasing pH to more acidic value after 20 min ZVI/PS (PS=0.50 mM; pH=3.0) treatment. ZVA/PS could not provide complete 3,5-DCP removal after 120 min treatment such that for the highest tried PS concentration.(1.00 mM; pH=3.0) resulted in only 31% 3,5-DCP removal. 2,4-DCA degradation by UV-C/PS, at all studied initial PS concentrations and pH values resulted in complete pollutant removal. PS activation with ZVI resulted in complete 2,4-DCA removal for initial PS concentration exceeding 0.50 mM such that after 80 min ZVI/PS (PS=0.75 mM; pH=5.0) treatment, complete 2,4-DCA was obtained; however, the required time to achieve complete 2,4-DCA with initial PS of 1.00 mM was longer (100 min) most probably as a result of SO4●- scavenging reaction with excess PS and/or ferrous ion. The highest 2,4-DCA removal (47%) by 120 min ZVA/PS (pH=3.0) treatment was obtained with initial PS concentration of 0.25 mM, below or beyond which the 2,4-DCA removal decreased. 2,4-DCA removal by 120 min ZVA/PS (PS=0.50 mM) treatment increased remarkably from 20% to 89% , when pH decreased from 3.0 to 1.5 suggesting that more acidic pH facilitated effective removal of 2,4-DCA due to ZVA corrosion. Complete IPR removal was achieved by UV-C/PS at all studied initial PS concentrations such that even with low PS (0.03 mM), complete IPR was obtained in 20 min. Increasing initial PS concentration in the range of 0.01 mM to 1.00 mM led to higher SO4●- concentrations and consequently faster IPR degradation rates. Alkaline hydrolysis of IPR was observed at initial pH of 9.0 and 11.0 during UV-C/PS treatment; however, complex pH effect on IPR degradation rate was observed at neutral and acidic pH values. ZVI/PS (pH=5.0) treatment of IPR, demonstrated that increasing initial PS concentration to more than 0.50 mM, appreciably improved ZVI/PS treatment of IPR. ZVA/PS was an efficient treatment only in IPR degradation such that even low PS concentrations (0.10 mM and 0.25 mM) with initial pH of 3.0 resulted in almost 80% IPR removal after 120 min treatment and for higher PS concentrations, complete IPR was obtained. In both heterogeneous treatments of all three model industrial micropollutants acidic pH values showed a better performance. Those oxidation processes from treatability of the micropollutants in DW resulted in complete micropollutant removal, were investigated under selected PS and pH conditions to correlate each micropollutant removal with chloride ion (Cl-) release, metal ion release, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) removal and PS consumption. Experiments conducted in DW indicated that for all three model industrial micropollutants, complete removals were achieved by UV-C/PS accompanied with dechlorination and appreciable mineralizations. 3,5-DCP was completely degraded by UV-C/PS (PS=0.30 mM; pH=6.3) treatment in 40 min accompanied with 95% DOC removal that was achieved after 120 min treatment. Maximum Cl- concentrations of 3.91 mg/L was obtained after 120 min UV-C/PS treatment of 3,5-DCP corresponding to practically 90% of the highest possible theoretical Cl- release of 4.35 mg/L. Practically complete 2,4-DCA removal was achieved after 10 min UV-C/PS (PS=1.00 mM; pH=6.0); however, with the progress of the treatment, dechlorination and DOC removal were proceeded such that 93% DOC removal and Cl- concentration of 3.64 mg/L were obtained after 40 min treatment. Beyond this treatment time, both DOC removal and dechlorination were practically stopped and remained constant probably due to PS depletion. IPR degradation was accompanied with rapid dechlorination and PS consumption. UV-C/PS (PS=0.30 mM; pH=6.2) treatment was also effective in IPR mineralization; 78% DOC was removed after 120 min treatment and maximum Cl- concentrations of 1.50 mg/L was obtained at the end of the reaction. For all three studied industrial micropollutants, complete/near-complete removals were achieved by ZVI/PS accompanied with iron (Fe) release; however, their mineralizations were partially (21%-50% DOC removal) after 120 min treatment. ZVA/PS was only effective in IPR removal; however poor mineralization was obtained after 120 min treatment. Treatability of the selected micropollutants was also examined in a synthetic tertiary treated urban wastewater (SWW) during the studied treatments due to the fact that the presence of different water constituents in the reaction solution may inhibit the oxidation performance. Experimental results of three model industrial pollutants by the selected treatments (UV-C/PS and ZVI/PS) in SWW, revealed complete micropollutant removals; however, their mineralizations were partially and different compared to DW. UV-C/PS treatment of 3,5-DCP in DW that exhibited appreciable mineralization of 3,5-DCP, demonstrated worse treatment performance compared to ZVI/PS when applied in SWW (26% DOC removal and 41% DOC removal in SWW after 120 min treatment by UV-C/PS and ZVI/PS, respectively). Partial mineralizations of 2,4-DCA in SWW by 120 min UV-C/PS and ZVI/PS treatments were obtained as 57% and 35% DOC removals, respectively which were lower compared to DW revealing performance of both treatments decreased in complex medium. The experiments in DW exhibited the superior performance of the UV-C/PS for IPR mineralization (78% DOC removal after 120 min); however, the oxidation performance of UV-C/PS in SWW decreased appreciably and resulted in 24% DOC removal after 120 min. 40% DOC removal after 120 min was observed with ZVI/PS being the most efficient process in SWW. UV-C/PS treatment of all three selected micropollutants, was most negatively affected when apply in SWW most probably due to UV-C light absorption of SWW constituents hindering effective absorption by the target pollutant. Vibrio fischeri (V. fischeri) and Pseudokirchneriella subcapitata (P. subcapitata) were employed as the organism tests to assess changes in acute toxicity during application of the studied treatments. Responses of the two mentioned test organisms were rather different; higher inhibition rates were observed on P. subcapitata than V. fischeri. While the percent relative inhibition of the original 3,5-DCP on P. subcapitata was almost 20%, the inhibitory effect increased after 80 min UV-C/PS treatment reaching to 47%. After 80 min ZVI/PS treatment of 3,5-DCP, the percent relative inhibition of treated samples on P. subcapitata did not change appreciably. The percent relative inhibition of the original 2,4-DCA on P. subcapitata was in the range of 20%-28%; however, the inhibitory effect increased and reached 72% after 120 min UV-C/PS treatment. The percent relative inhibition of original IPR samples on P. subcapitata was obtained as <10%; however, it reached 56% and 39% after 120 min UV-C/PS and ZVI/PS, respectively. During the application of selected treatments in DW, the genotoxicity of original micropollutants and their AOPs-treated samples were explored using a mutant strain of Salmonella typhimurium TA 1535; however, no significant genotoxic effect was observed. At the final stage of this study, the type and nature of possible evolved degradation products during the selected treatments of three model industrial pollutants in DW were examined by ion chromatography, liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry analysis in order to gain a deeper insight into the formed radical reactions with the target pollutants. Hydroquinone, acetic acid and Cl- could be detected and quantified in the reaction solution during UV-C/PS and ZVI/PS treatments of 3,5-DCP. Aniline and acetic acid formations were evidenced during UV-C/PS treatment of 2,4-DCA accompanied with dechlorination; however only acetic acid was identified during ZVI/PS. LC analysis confirmed the formation of 2,4-DCA, hydroquinone, acetic acid and formic acids as the major aromatic and aliphatic degradation products of IPR during UV-C/PS while hydroquinone, lactic acid and acetic acid was evidenced for ZVI/PS treatment of IPR.
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ÖgeDynamic membranes in aerobic membrane bioreactor systems for municipal wastewater treatment(Graduate School, 2021-06-08) Işık, Onur ; Demir, İbrahim ; Özgün, Hale ; 501142704 ; Environmental Sciences Engineering and Management ; Çevre Bilimleri Mühendisliği ve YönetimiThe amount of municipal wastewater produced around the world is expected to increase parallel to the increase in population. Therefore, the treatment of municipal wastewater is very crucial for public health. Conventional activated sludge systems have been used for the treatment of municipal wastewater for a long time. Due to limited area availability and stringent discharge standards in most cases, compact treatment systems enabling high effluent quality have become attractive recently. Membrane bioreactor (MBR) technology is a good alternative to conventional activated sludge systems. There are several advantages of MBR technology over conventional biological treatment systems. Low footprint and high permeate quality can be considered as the most distinguishing features of the MBRs. Due to the retention of high suspended solids concentration in the bioreactor, smaller reactor volume and low sludge production can be achieved by the MBR process. However, some constraints have been observed during the operation of MBRs including membrane fouling and membrane costs. Dynamic membrane (DM) technology is a promising solution for problems encountered during the operation of MBRs for wastewater treatment. Membranes can be substituted with coarse-pore filters made of low-cost materials such as meshes or fabrics in dynamic membrane applications for cake (DM) layer formation. DM is a secondary layer formed on a low-coast porous support material. DM layer acts like a Microfiltration (MF) or Ultrafiltration (UF) membrane and keeps the sludge particles inside the bioreactor providing high permeate quality. Besides, physical cleaning, without using chemical reagents, may be enough for cleaning in dynamic membrane bioreactors (DMBRs), thus, the operational costs can be reduced. Flat sheet submerged module configurations were mostly used for aerobic DMBR studies for municipal wastewater treatment in the literature. Also, few studies used tubular modules in DMBRs. However, no studies reported using hollow fiber modules in the literature. The main aim of this thesis was to investigate the applicability of hollow fiber DM for municipal wastewater treatment in an aerobic DMBR. This thesis was conducted in 6 Stages. In stage 1, a hollow fiber polyester fabric support material was used for DM formation and compared with a commercial hollow fiber UF membrane. The system was fed with medium strength synthetic municipal wastewater to keep the characteristics of the wastewater same, and to evaluate the treatment and filtration performances of both membranes clearly. Morphological analyses were also carried out for DM and UF surfaces. The system was operated continuously at a flux of 5 L/m2·h for 85 days. High chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiency and total suspended solids (TSS) rejection were achieved by the DM. Transmembrane pressure (TMP) of the DM was higher in comparison to the UF membrane, which was related to the formation of the cake layer in DM. In Stage 2, impact of support material type on DMBR performance was investigated for municipal wastewater treatment. A hollow fiber polyester support material was compared with a glass fiber support material in terms of treatment and filtration performances. Medium strength synthetic municipal wastewater was used for a stable feed characteristics. Similar treatment performances were obtained with each membrane achieving high removal efficiencies for COD(>97%) and TSS (>99%) parameters. Higher TMP was observed for glass fiber material in comparison to polyester material. Based on morphological analyses, dynamic layers formed on both support materials had similar compositions, organic and inorganic materials. A homogeneous layer was formed on a polyester support material, while fine particles were deposited between the filaments of glass fiber support material, which caused clogging. In Stage 3, a hollow fiber polyester fabric support material was used for DM formation for raw municipal wastewater treatment. The wastewater had average COD concentration of 413 mg/L, sCOD concentration of 208 mg/L and TSS concentration of 259 mg/L. Treatment and filtration performances were evaluated. High treatment performance was obtained in the permeate achieving over 93% of COD removal efficiency and low TSS concentration (<10 mg/L) in the permeate. The average TMP value was observed as around 598 mbar after the system reached stable conditions. In Stage 4, effect of different TSS concentrations on the DM layer was evaluated in terms of biological treatment and filtration performances. Hollow fiber polyester support material was used for DM layer formation. Treatment and filtration performances of the DMBR were investigated at two different TSS concentrations (5 g/L; 10 g/L). The DMBR was operated at a flux of 18 L/m2·h at each condition. High treatment performance and permeate quality were achieved at each sludge concentration. However, a shift to a relatively higher range in particle size distribution of permeate was observed at high sludge concentration. Furthermore, higher TMP was observed at the sludge concentration of 10 g/L, resulting in a rapid clogging. Overall, results indicated that selection of the optimum sludge concentration played a significant role in achieving homogeneous and stable DM layer in DMBRs. In stage 5, hollow fiber polyester support material was used for DM formation and compared with a commercial UF membrane in terms of micropollutant and heavy metal treatment performance from raw municipal wastewater, also biological treatment and filtration performances were evaluated. The removal of different micropollutants; sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim, caffeine and acetaminophen, was assessed for both membranes. The membranes were operated at a flux of 10 L/m2·h. High TSS (>99%) and COD (> 91%) removal efficiencies were achieved with both membranes. Similar high removal efficiencies of micropollutants (>68.3->99.7%) were achieved with both membranes. DM was operated at higher TMP compared to UF membrane, since DM layer was formed on the support material. Morphological analyses were conducted for both membranes to get insight to the DM layers which accumulated on the membranes. In Stage 6, effect of using different inoculum on DMBRs performance was investigated. Excess sludge from HRAS and conventional activated sludge system retuned activated sludge were used as inoculums. Conventional UF membrane was used in parallel with a dynamic membrane (DM) in the same reactor to be operated at the same conditions. Both sludges were characterized to understand the changes during the operational period. Biological treatment and filtration performances of both membranes were investigated. High TSS (>99%) and COD (> 86%) removal efficiencies were achieved with both membranes for both inoculum sludge. Because of the inoculum sludge characteristics, lower TMP values were observed for DM at Phase-2. Morphological analys (ESEM measurement) was conducted to understand the effect of different inoculum on the sludge cake on the surface of the membranes.
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ÖgeFabrication of thin film nanocomposite pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) membranes using cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) and evaluation of performances in the processes(Graduate School, 2021-02-02) Paşaoğlu, Mehmet Emin ; Koyuncu, İsmail ; 659118 ; Environmental EngineeringNowadays, owing to quick world population growth and abrupt economy, high water demands desire innovative technologies in order to ensure clean and safe water with lower energy use. Severe environmental emissions arising by the consumption of fossil fuels often needs us to build energy harvesting technology which are environmentally sustainable. As an advanced technology, osmotic membrane processes consisting of forward and pressure-retarded osmosis, are conceived to be conspicuous technologies for the treatment, recycling and reuse of wastewaters and the harvesting of salinity gradient energy which is called "Blue Energy". Nevertheless, forward osmosis (FO) and pressure retarded osmosis (PRO) are at the level of growth yet. It is difficult piece of work to fabricate osmotic membranes obtaine high water permeability and perfect ion retention. The ideal osmotic membrane candidate can be a thin film composite membrane satisfy the conditions which has high water permeation and as soon as low reverse salt flux ratio. Furthermore, for the membrane to endure relatively high hydraulic pressures in PRO systems, certain mechanical properties are vital. Thankfully, membranes that are fabricated with electrospinning method have an excellent capability to overcome all specifications of the perfect support layer in consequence of porous structure characteristics and simplicity with that nanomaterials may be integrated to enhance the nanofibers mechanical strength. Apart from this, interfacial polymerization (IP) may be accomplished to electrospun nanofiber membrane to achieve a very thin selective polyamide coating. TFN membranes may show tremendous potential in osmotically driven membrane processes after integrating nano additives into their support layer. The aim of this thesis to carry out and design a comprehensive study on the development of reinforced pressure retarded osmosis membranes. Specifically, this thesis presents the development of novel nanofiber supported thin film composite membranes with high water permeability and excellent selectivity for solvents, while showing an excellent mechanical strength for PRO processes. Interfacial polymerization reactions were used to construct very thin polyamide selective layer on the support, and electrospinning process was used to fabricate a number of support layers. Initially, we investigated the potential to use flat sheet electrospun polyacrylonitrile nanofibers as support support layer to fabricate PRO membranes. Polyamide TFCs were successfully applied on five different substrate containing 0,1,2,5,10% crystal nanocellulose (CNC) in 16% PAN polymer solution. PRO membranes successfully fabricated via tailor-made flat sheet fabrication unit. It is concluded that PAN and CNC generated a complete mixture according to SEM, FTIR, DMA & contact angle analysis findings.The addition of CNC improved the mechanical strength of PAN support layers which is the main phenomenon in PRO applications. The newly developed membrane can achieve a higher PRO water flux of 300 LMH, using a 1 M NaCl draw solution and deionized water feed solution. The corresponding salt flux is only 1.5 gMH. The reverse flux selectivity represented by the ratio of water flux to reverse salt flux (Jw/Js) was able to be kept as high as 200 L/g for PRO operation. Following the success of flat-sheet TFN PRO membrane fabrication, improvements need to be done to increase packing density of fabricated final membrane modules. In this point, we used a novel technique to fabricate tubular membranes for PRO applications. The newly fabricated membrane achieves a higher PRO water flux of 405.38 LMH with using a 1 M NaCl and a DI as feed water. The corresponding salt flux is found as 2.10 gMH which is higher than flat sheet membranes. The selectivity of the reversed flux represented by the ratio of the water flow to the reversed salt flux (Jw/ Js) was able to be kept as high as 193.03 L/g for PRO operation.As far as we know, the performance of the work developed membrane in this study has shown better performance than all PRO membranes reported in the literature previously.
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Ögeİstanbul'da ulaştırma sektörünün iklim değişikliğine etkisinin belirlenmesi(Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, 2021-09-16) Güzel Doğan, Tuğba ; Alp, Kadir ; 501142712 ; Çevre Bilimleri Mühendisliği ve Yönetimiİklim değişikliği, günümüzde küresel ölçekteki en önemli problemlerden biri haline gelmiştir. İklim değişikliğinin temel sebebi olarak gösterilen küresel ısınma ise, atmosferde bulunan sera gazları (CO2, CH4, N2O, HFCs, PFCs ve SF6) tarafından dünyadan yansıtılan ışınların tutulması sonucu yerkürenin ısınması şeklinde tanımlanmaktadır. Sanayileşme öncesi dönemden bu yana, küresel ortalama yüzey sıcaklığı 1°C artış göstermiştir. Ayrıca, insan faaliyetleri günümüzdeki atmosferik CO2 konsantrasyonunu sanayi devrimi öncesi seviyenin neredeyse %50 üzerine çıkarmıştır. İklim değişikliğinin olumsuz etkilerine karşı küresel düzeyde çözüm bulunabilmesi amacıyla çeşitli adımlar atılmaktadır. Bu doğrultuda, 2015 yılında 21. Taraflar Konferansı'nda kabul edilen ve küresel ısınmanın sanayi öncesi seviyelere kıyasla 2°C'nin çok altında, tercihen 1,5°C ile sınırlandırılmasını hedefleyen Paris Anlaşması küresel emisyonların en az % 55'ini oluşturan 55 ülkenin onayı ile 4 Kasım 2016'da yürürlüğe girmiştir. Tarihi Paris Anlaşması'nın kabul edildiği COP21 öncesinde ülkeler, kendi yerel koşulları ve yeteneklerini dikkate alarak hazırladıkları sera gazı emisyonlarını azaltma isteklerini BMİDÇS Sekreteryası'na iletmiştir. Niyet Edilen Ulusal Olarak Belirlenmiş Katkı olarak nitelendirilen bu iyi niyet beyanını ülkemiz 30 Eylül 2015 tarihinde Sekreterya'ya iletmiş olup, sera gazı emisyonlarında 2030 yılında artıştan %21 oranında azaltım katkısı hedeflemiştir. Bu kapsamda, ulaştırma sektörü sera gazı salımına katkıda bulunan önemli bileşenlerden birini oluşturmaktadır. Ülkemizde ulaştırma sektörü birincil enerji tüketimi 27,7 milyon TEP ile sektörel tüketimler arasında sanayi tüketiminden sonra ikinci sırada yer almaktadır. Ulaştırma sektörü birincil enerji tüketiminin yaklaşık %93'ünü karayolları oluşturmaktadır. Sera gazı salımına katkıda bulunan motorlu kara taşıtı sayısı ülkemizde gün geçtikçe artmaktadır. Türkiye'nin 2019 yılı motorlu kara taşıtı sayısı yaklaşık 23,2 milyon olup, bu değerin 4,2 milyonu İstanbul'daki araç sayısıdır. 5.461 km2 ile ülke yüzölçümünün yalnızca %0,7'sini oluşturan İstanbul, küçük bir il olmasna rağmen nüfus ve ekonomik çıktı açısından ulusal olarak baskın bir rol oynamaktadır. İstanbul, 15,52 milyon nufusu ve 15.285 ABD Dolar kişi başı gayri safi yurtiçi hasıla (GSYİH) değeri ile Türkiye'nin en büyük ve en gelişmiş metropol şehridir. Ayrıca, 2987 kişi/km2 nüfus yoğunluğu ile zirvede yer almaktadır. İstanbul'da şehir içi ulaşım karayolu, raylı sistem ve denizyolu ile sağlanmaktadır. İstanbul Boğazı şehir içi ulaşımda olduğu kadar uluslararası ulaşımda da önemli bir rol oynamaktadır. İstanbul'un Anadolu ve Avrupa Yakası'nda toplamda 2 adet havalimanı bulunmaktadır. Bu doğrultuda, bu çalışma kapsamında İstanbul'da ulaştırma sektörünün iklim değişikliğine olan etkisinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Türkiye'de trafik yoğunluğunun en fazla olduğu şehirlerinden biri olan İstanbul için ulaştırma sektörü kaynaklı sera gazı emisyonlarının mevcut durum için hesaplanması, ileriye yönelik sera gazı emisyonu projeksiyonlarının yapılması ve farklı senaryolar altında gelecekte sera gazı emisyonları üzerinde ne gibi etkiler olacağının değerlendirmesi yapılmıştır. Tez çalışması kapsamında TIMES (The Integrated MARKAL-EFOM System) Modeli kullanılmıştır.
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ÖgeNitrogen removal and microbial community shift in oxic-settling-anoxic sludge reduction process( 2020) Karlikanovaite Balıkçı, Agne ; Yağcı, Nevin ; 618662 ; Çevre Mühendisliği ; Environmental BiotechnologyNitrifikasyon ve biyolojik azot giderme mekanizmalarını içeren sürekli araştırma çalışmalarıyla aktif çamur işleminin performansı arttırıldı. Ancak, uygulanan bu işlemden kaynaklanan aktif çamurun rutin israfı nedeniyle, sürekli olarak fazla biyokütle üretimi olmaktadır, bu da daha fazla arıtma ihtiyacıyla beraber çamurun uygun bir bölgeye atılmasını veya yakılmasını gerektirdiğinden dolayı fazla çamurun arıtımı ve imha edilmesi hala zorlayıcıdır. Fazla çamurun arıtılması ve imha edilmesi, toplam işletme maliyetinin % 25-65'ini oluşturmaktadır. Bu nedenle, aşırı çamur üretimini en aza indirmek için stratejilerin uygulanması hem çevresel hem de ekonomik açıdan ideal bir çözüm olabilir. Şimdiye kadar çamurun en aza indirilmesi için yaygın olarak Anaerobik sindirim kullanılsa da, üretilen aşırı çamur hacminin dünya çapında hala artması, biyolojik atık su arıtma proseslerinde aşırı çamur üretimini azaltmak için daha yeni, daha umut verici stratejiler ve yöntemlerin keşfedilmesi gerekmektedir. Literatürdeki mevcut bilgiler ve bu alanlardaki uzmanlıkların ışığında, nitrojen giderimi ve çamuru en aza indirgemek için uygun işlem alternatiflerinin belirlenmesi ve çamur üretimini azaltmak adına anaerobik/anoksik yan akım reaktörleriyle besin giderimi için modifiye edilmiş alternatif işlemlerin uygulanması gibi seçenekler mümkün olabilir. Literatüre göre, OSA sürecinin avantajlarına ek olarak, OSA arıtma performansını en üst düzeye çıkarmak için operasyonel ve tasarım parametrelerini belirlemek hala büyük bir ihtiyaçtır; Daha da önemlisi, OSA süreci ile ilgili çalışmaların çoğunda sentetik atık su kullanıldı, bu çalışmanın orijinal tarafı, gerçek evsel atık su kullanılarak yapılmış olmasıdır. Bu özel araştırmada, konular uluslararası bir düzeyde ele alınacaktır, çünkü OSA sürecinin entegrasyonu ile kademeli besleme SBR sistemi toplam azot giderimi açısından oldukça verimlidir, çamur imhası ve arıtımı gerekli olmayacaktır. Yine de, mevcut literatürdeki araştırmacılar arasında çamurun azaltılmasına neden olan kilit mekanizma halen çok tartışmalıdır, bu nedenle ASM1 bu çalışmada OSA sürecinde çamur azaltmaya neden olan mekanizmayı araştırmak için kullanılmıştır. Buna ek olarak mikrobiyal topluluğu değerlendirmek için literatürde ilk kez bakteriyel 16S rRNA gen amplikonları Yeni Nesil Dizileme (NGS) kullanılmıştır. Özet olarak, OSA sistemi ile ilgili multidisipliner bir yaklaşım ve yoğun araştırma gerektiren bir zorluk yaratan birçok darboğaz vardır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, OSA sürecinin uygulanmasından önce ve sonra SBR sistemlerinin performansını göstermektir. Gerçek atık su kullanan OSA sürecindeki bilgi eksikliği, OSA sistemlerinin uygulanmasından sonra toplam azot giderimi, aşırı çamur azaltımı, mikrobiyal topluluk değişikliklerine odaklanan bu çalışmayı güçlü bir şekilde motive etmiştir. Bu çalışma, gerçek atık suyun tam ölçekte arıtılmasında OSA sistemlerinin uygulanmasının daha iyi anlaşılmasına katkıda bulunacaktır. Kentsel atıksu arıtımı sırasındaoluşan fazla çamurun uzaklaştırılması ve besi maddesi giderimi konusunda son yıllarda uygulanan standartların sıkılığı,pekçok atıksu arıtma tesisinin çıkış suyu standartlarını sağlama ve çamuroluşumu konusunda ciddi zorluklarla karşı karşıya kalmasına neden olmuştur. Bu çalışmada, yukarıda belirtilensorunların giderilmesi konusunda gelecek vaad eden bir proses olanoksik-çökeltim-anaerobik (OSA) üzerine odaklanılarak, azot giderimi ve çamur azalmasının birlikte gerçekleştirildiği bir sistemin değerlendirilmesi amaçlamıştır. Yan akım reaktöründe en yüksek çamur azalması iç geri devir oranının %7,7 olduğu durumda %58 olarak gerçekleşmiştir. Diğer sistemlerde ise iç geri devir oranının %5,9 ve 5,0 olması durumlarında bu değer sırasıyla %37 ve %35 olarak elde edilmiştir. Bu doğrultuda, bu sistemlerde, yan akım reaktöründen gelen çamur girişi nedeniyle ana reaktörde gerçekleşen yüksek biyokütle konsantrasyonunun ve çamur bekletme süresinin etkisiyle mikrobiyal ölüm fazının çoğalmaya görece daha yüksek gerçekleştiği düşünülmektedir. Bu sistemlerde, aynı zamanda, yüksek (%85'e kadar) azot giderim verimlerinin gerçekleştiği gözlenmiştir. Buna göre, iç geri devir oranının, literatürde genellikle kullanılan %10 oranı yerine %8 olarak gerçekleştirilmesinin hem çamur azalması hem de azot giderimi açısından, muhtemelen daha düşük maliyetli, bir seçenek olacağı düşünülmektedir. OSA prosesi, biyolojik atıksu arıtımı sırasında kaçınılmaz olarak oluşan, susuzlaştırılıp stabilize edildikten sonra uzaklaştırılması gereken fazlabiyolojik çamur miktarının azaltılmasına yönelik olarak fazla çamur yan akımına anaerobik reaktör ilavesi ile gerçekleştirilmektedir. İlave edilen yan akım anaerobik reaktörde, fazla çamur hattındaki biyolojik çamurun bir kısmı belirli bir süre oksijensiz koşullara maruz bırakıldıktan sonra biyolojik arıtma ünitelerinin girişine biyokütle girdisi olarak verilmektedir. Bu sayede, yan akım reaktöründe kısmi stabilize olan çamur biyolojik ünitelerde besi madde olarak kullanılmak suretiyle özellikle azot giderimi için karbon kaynağı olma potansiyeli taşımaktadır. Aynı zamanda, yan akımda stabilizasyon nedeniyle sistemin çamur yaşı artmakta, dolayısıyla gözlenen dönüşüm oranları düşmektedir. Bunun sonucu olarak da biyolojik sistemde çamur üretimi azalmakta ve uzaklaştırılacak çamur miktarı düşmektedir. Bu çalışmada, çamur azalmasına yönelik olarak geliştirilen OSA sistemi kullanılarak farklı işletme koşullarında çamur azalması oranları ve azot giderimine yoğunlaşılmıştır. Bu sistemlerin aktif çamur modelleri ile modellenmesi ve gerçek sistemlere yönelik modelleme çalışmalarına esas oluşaturacak kinetik katsayı belirleme çalışmaları gerçekleştirilmiştir. Ayrıca, bu sistemlerde farklı işletme şartlarında mikrobiyal topluluğun değişimi ortaya konulmaya çalışılmıştır. Mikrobiyal kinetiğin değerlendirilmesi ve çamur azaltma mekanizmasının daha iyi anlaşılması için bir dizi respirometrik test tasarlanmıştır. Kalibrasyon çalışmasının sonuçlarına göre mikrobiyal ölüm oranının, sistem konfigürasyonuna bağlı olarak, en değişken kinetik parametre olduğu görülmüştür. Bu kinetik katsayının sistemler OSA konfigürasyonunda işetilmeye başlandıktan sonra önemli ölçüde arttığı, buna karşılık -diğer model parametrelerinin neredeyse sabit kaldıkları görülmüştür. Bu durumun, mikrobiyal topluluktaki veya mevcut topluluğun metabolizmasındaki değişimden kaynaklanıyor olabileceği düşünülmektedir. Bu çalışmada işletilen klasik aktif çamur sistemlerinde, yürütülen respirometrik analizler sonucunda, aktif biyokütle oranı% 75 civarında elde edilmişken yan akım reaktöründe bu değer 2 kat daha düşük olarak belirlenmiştir. Sonuç olarak, respirometrik analizlerden elde edilen veriler doğrultusunda, OSA prosesininölüm fazını teşvik ettiği, bunun sonucu olarak reaktördeki biyokütle canlılığını azaldığı ve aşırı çamur azalmasının sağladığı sonucuna varılmıştır. Bu çalışmanın en önemli yönlerinden birisi de gerçek evsel atık su kullanılmasıdır. Literatürdeki çalışmalar sentetik olarak hazırlanmış atıksuların kullanımı ile gerçekleştirilmişken, tüm deneysel çalışma bir atıksu arıtma tesisi kum tutucu çıkışından alınan ham atılsu ile yürütülmüştür. Böylelikle, OSA prosesinin pratik uygulanabilirliği yönünde önemli sonuçlar elde edilebilmiştir. Elde edilen veriler, OSA sistemlerinde çamur azalmasının ve azot gideriminin birlikte gerçekleştirilebilirliğinin mümkün olduğunu göstermiştir. Mikrobiyal topluluğun ölüm fazına yakın çalışması ve biyolojik çamur girdisi nedeniyle biyolojik reaktörde yüksek biyokütle konsantrasyonları elde edilmiş, bu çalışma süresinde sistemden normal biyolojik atıksu arıtma tesislerinde yapılan rutin çamur atma işlemi yapılmamıştır. Yürütülen deneysel çalışmada, kurulan OSA sistemleri farklı değişim oranlarında işletilmiştir. Bu amaçla, biyolojik sistemden yan akım reaktörüne beslenen çamur miktarları değiştirilmiştir. Bu sistemlerde çamur azalması, gözlenen dönüşüm oranları ve azot giderim yüzdeleri belirlenmiştir. Mikrobial topluluk kompozisyonu başlangıç biyolojik çamuru ve farklı işletilmiş OSA sistemlerinden alınan biyolojik çamurlarda belirlenerek sonuçlar karşılaştırılmıştır. Literatürde ilk kez kapsamlı olarak, bu sistemlerde, bakteriyel 16S rRNA gen sekanslama analizi (Yeni Nesil Sekanslama) ile mikrobiyal topluluk profili ortaya konulmuş ve değerlendirilmiştir. Bu çalışmada, çamur azalması oranlarının değerlendirilmesi ve mikrobiyal topluluktaki değişimin ortaya konulması amacıyla farklı iç geri devir oranlarında işletilen sistemlerin gözlenen dönüşüm oranları hesaplanarak, aynı koşullarda işletilen kontrol sistemleri ile karşılaştırılmıştır. Buna göre, en yüksek çamur azalması (%52,1) iç geri devir en yüksek olduğunda elde edilmiştir. 16S rRNA gen amplikon sekans analizi, benzer filogenetik gruplardan, Proteobakteriler, Acidobacteria ve Bacteroidetes türlerinden oluşan bakteri topluluğunun baskın olduğunu göstermiştir. Değişen iç geri devir oranlarına bağlı olarak bu toplulukların baskınlığı da farklılık göstermiştir. OSA sistemlerindeThiothrixtürünün baskın olduğu ve sistemlerde önemli rolü olabileceği görülmüştür. Çamur üretiminin en aza indirilmesinin, Intrasporangiaceae türlerinin baskınlığı ile de ilgili olabileceği elde edilen bulgular arasındadır.
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ÖgeOptimization of anaerobic membrane bioreactors for sludge treatment(Graduate School, 2023-02-01) Abdelrahman, Amr Mustafa ; Erşahin, Mustafa Evren ; Volcke, Eveline ; 501182702 ; Environmental Sciences, Engineering and ManagementWastewater treatment is an energy intensive process. The energy balance is positively affected by anaerobic sludge digestion, especially primary sludge. The inclusion of a primary clarifier before the biological reactors results in a higher sludge total production compared to the direct treatment of raw wastewater. Conventional anaerobic digesters for sludge treatment are designed as completely mixed reactors operated at long solid retention times (SRTs) for enhanced solids conversion and to maintain the methanogenic activity in the reactor. Consequently, anaerobic digesters are commonly built with large volumes to ensure sufficient reduction of volatile solids (Xu et al., 2011). Anaerobic membrane bioreactor (AnMBR) is a promising alternative to conventional anaerobic digesters for sludge digestion. AnMBRs are operated at long SRTs independent from hydraulic retention time (HRT) by means of physical separation of the membrane. Thus, slow growing methanogenic biomass can be kept longer in the reactor, resulting in enhanced methane production. Moreover, a smaller footprint of the anaerobic reactor can be achieved since the HRT can be controlled by manipulating the flux. To understand the rationale behind the thesis, Chapter 1 presents a brief description about the energy consumption for wastewater treatment and its distribution in the wastewater treatment plant (WWTP). The organic matter removal mechanism in the conventional WWTP is explained. Novel process configurations for organics capture are presented. Anaerobic digestion process and the design parameters of the anaerobic digester are explained as well. The advantages of using AnMBR for sludge treatment are defined. The chapter ends with research gap and an outline of the thesis. The current status and perspectives of the AnMBR technology for sludge treatment are critically reviewed in Chapter 2. It discusses the historical development of the AnMBR for sludge treatment, and factors influencing the AnMBR performance reported in the literature. The operational conditions such as SRT, HRT and temperature have a noticeable effect on the methane production and permeate quality. Volatile fatty acids (VFAs) can be recovered simultaneously during sludge treatment, which can improve the economics of the WWTP. However, there are still problems, such as membrane fouling, which hinder the adoption of AnMBR technology for sludge management, as well as a lack of studies demonstrating the economic benefits of using AnMBRs for sludge treatment. Suggestions for research perspective are given, aiming for overcoming the challenges and for optimization of the AnMBR for sludge treatment. The aim of this thesis was to investigate the applicability of the AnMBR for sludge treatment in the view of energy-positive WWTPs. The objectives of this thesis were met through four different studies. Chapter 3 explains the material used and methods followed during these studies. The results of these studies are explained and disscussed in Chapter 4. In order to maximize organic capture and thus energy recovery from wastewater, novel configurations including an A-stage and CEPT have been proposed as alternatives to primary settling. However, it remains to be investigated to which extent these configurations affect the sludge characteristics, which may affect the economic feasibility of the integrated systems. Therefore, the first study focuses on the effect of these primary treatment methods on sludge characteristics and digestibility, and on plant-wide economics of wastewater treatment. A detailed characterization of sludge obtained from primary settling (primary sludge), A-stage treatment (A-sludge) and CEPT showed significantly different sludge characteristics. The organic compounds in primary sludge consisted mainly of 40% carbohydrates, 23% lipids, and 21% proteins. A-sludge was characterized by a high amount of proteins (40%) and a moderate amount of carbohydrates (23%), and lipids (16%), while in CEPT sludge, organic compounds were mainly 26% proteins, 18% carbohydrates, 18% lignin, and 12% lipids. The biomethane potential test showed that primary sludge and A-sludge had the highest methane yield (347 and 333 mL CH4/g VS, respectively), while methane yield of CEPT sludge was lower(245 mL CH4/g VS). A plant-wide economic evaluation for the three systems, indicated that energy surplus was the highest with CEPT. The inclusion of an A-stage had the lowest positive net energy due to the relatively high energy consumption in aeration. Considering the effluent quality of the three systems, CEPT had the highest benefits, followed by A-stage. Overall, integration of CEPT or A-stage, instead of primary clarification in existing wastewater treatment plants, has the potential to improve the effluent quality and energy recovery. AnMBRs have been applied as compact alternatives for anaerobic digesters for sludge treatment in conventional WWTPs. However, there is no information about the impact of integrating an A-stage, instead of primary clarifier, on sludge digestion in an AnMBR. The second study examines the performance of lab-scale AnMBRs, in terms of treatment and filtration performances, for both digestion of primary sludge and A-sludge. The results showed that anaerobic digestion of A-sludge yielded more methane and improved methanogenic activity in the AnMBR compared to primary sludge. The permeate of the AnMBR fed with A-sludge contained higher nitrogen and phosphorous concentrations due to higher nitrogen and dissolved phosphorous concentrations of A-sludge. No coliforms were detected in the permeates, which showed that from the hygienic point of view, the permeate had the potential to be directly used for irrigation purposes. A higher EPS concentration was observed during the digestion of A-sludge compared to the primary sludge, which accumulated on the surface of the membrane and caused an increase in transmembrane pressure (TMP) and filtration resistance. On a plant-wide level, the integration of an A-stage increased the amount of organic matter (COD) recovered from wastewater in the form of methane gas by about 15% compared to a WWTP configuration with a primary clarifier. Anaerobic digesters are operated at either mesophilic (35°C) or thermophilic (55°C) conditions. In general, it is known that higher amounts of biogas are produced from digesters operated at thermophilic conditions because of higher biochemical reaction rates. However, the specific effect of temperature on AnMBR performance for A-sludge digestion has not yet been assessed. Therefore, the third study evaluates the treatment and filtration performances of lab-scale AnMBR under mesophilic and thermophilic conditions. Higher biogas and VFAs were produced under thermophilic conditions, which were 23% and 47% higher than those under mesophilic one, respectively. Besides, the membrane could be operated at lower TMP under thermophilic conditions. However, taking into account the energy consumption and production, operating the AnMBR under mesophilic conditions would result in a more than three-fold higher net energy production than operating under thermophilic conditions, whereas surplus energy recovery under thermophilic conditions was less than the additional energy consumption. Therefore, despite the advantages of thermophilic conditions, operating AnMBR for sludge digestion under mesophilic conditions has a higher potential to improve the energy balance in the WWTPs. As found during the review (Chapter 2), there is a lack of studies demonstrating the economic benefits of using AnMBRs for sludge treatment in the WWTP. Therefore, the feasibility of the AnMBR for sludge (primary and waste activated sludge) treatment in a conventional WWTP is evaluated in the fourth study, through mathematical modeling and simulation, on unit process and plant-wide levels. The impact of HRT and SRT as control handles on the performance of the AnMBR was assessed. The amount of COD converted into methane could be increased by increasing the SRT or lowering the HRT, the former having a higher positive impact. The nitrogen and phosphorous load in the permeate increased by increasing the SRT or lowering the HRT, while the COD concentration in the permeate was hardly affected. As for the energy balance, increasing the SRT was more efficient than lowering the HRT. Indeed, increasing the SRT caused a significant increase in energy production while lowering the HRT only slightly reduced the energy consumption and did not affect the energy production. On a plant-wide level, the integration of an AnMBR instead of the anaerobic digester decreased the operational costs of the WWTP by 27%, but led to a worse effluent quality. The latter could be remedied by post-treatment of the permeate by struvite recovery and nitrogen removal through partial nitritation/anammox, at the same time further decreasing the operational costs - with 35% compared to a conventional WWTP. Overall, applying AnMBR for sludge treatment combined with post-treatment of the permeate provides effluent quality that meets the EU regulations and implies significant operational cost savings for wastewater treatment. Finally, Chapter 5 summarizes the main findings of the previous chapters and gives perspectives for further research inspired from the thesis.
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ÖgeOrganik atıklardan sürdürülebilir enerji geri kazanımı: Biyolojik ve termal geri kazanım proseslerinin analizi(Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, 2022-04-28) Altan, Hasan Suphi ; Sözen, Seval ; 501152712 ; Çevre Bilimleri, Mühendisliği ve YönetimiYürütülen tez çalışması kapsamında farklı kaynaklarda üretilen enerji potansiyeli yüksek olan organik atıklardan, alternatif teknolojiler kullanılarak sürdürülebilir şekilde yenilenebilir enerji geri kazanımının fizibilitesi ortaya konmaktadır. Çalışma kapsamında ele alınan organik karakterdeki evsel katı atıklar, endüstriyel içeriğe sahip olmayan arıtma çamurları, ülke genelinde yaygın olarak yürütülen hayvancılık faaliyetlerinden kaynaklanan atıklar ve ülke genelinde bölgesel olarak majör tarımsal faaliyetler neticesinde açığa çıkan atıkların enerji geri kazanımı ile ülke enerji arz çeşitliliğine ve enerji ekonomisine önemli bir katkı sağlanabileceği tahmin edilmektedir. Çalışmanın temeli kapsamlı bir literatür araştırmasına dayanmaktadır. İlk olarak ülke genelinde enerji üretimine uygun olan katı atık potansiyeli araştırılmış ve evsel katı atıklar, endüstriyel içeriğe sahip olmayan arıtma çamurları, majör hayvancılık faaliyetlerinden kaynaklanan atıklar ve her bir coğrafi bölgede yaygın olan tarım faaliyetlerinden kaynaklanan atıklar için literatür kaynaklı miktar tespiti yapılmıştır. Bir sonraki basamakta ise organik madde muhtevası yüksek olan katı atıkların enerji geri kazanımı için yaygın olarak kullanılan prosesler detaylı araştırılmış ve termal geri kazanım prosesleri kapsamında yakma, gazifikasyon (gazlaştırma), piroliz ve biyolojik enerji geri kazanım prosesleri kapsamında ise anaerobik çürütme (digestion) prosesi simüle edilerek, bu proseslerin modellenmesine yönelik parametreler tespit edilmiştir. Evsel katı atık miktarlarının tespitinde TÜİK verilerinden faydalanılmış, her bir il için yıllara bağlı miktarlar tespit edilmiştir. Evsel/Kentsel atıksu arıtma tesislerinden kaynaklanan arıtma çamurlarının miktarı, TÜİK veri tabanında ilan edilen atıksu arıtma miktarları ile ilişkili olarak hesaplanmıştır. Söz konusu hesaplamada coğrafi bölge özellikleri ve arıtma tesislerinin konfigürasyonları dikkate alınmış ve her bir il için oluşan arıtma çamurlarının miktarı tespit edilmiştir. Hayvancılık faaliyetlerinden kaynaklanan atıkların miktarının tespitinde ise Enerji ve Tabii Kaynaklar Bakanlığı, Yenilenebilir Enerji Genel Müdürlüğü tarafından oluşturulan Biyokütle Potansiyel Atlası veri tabanından faydalanılmıştır. Buna göre çalışma kapsamında ele alınmak üzere büyükbaş, küçükbaş ve kanatlı hayvan yetiştirme faaliyetlerinden kaynaklanan atık miktarları il bazında tespit edilmiştir. Tarım faaliyetlerinden kaynaklanan atıkların tespitinde ise ülke genelinde tarım faaliyetlerinin değişken olması nedeniyle bölgesel yaklaşım ile ilerlenmiştir. Yapılan literatür çalışmasının kaynağını hayvancılık faaliyetlerinden kaynaklanan atıklarda olduğu gibi Biyokütle Potansiyel Atlası oluşturmaktadır. Çalışma genelinde her bir coğrafi bölge için o bölge içerisinde en fazla miktarda üretilen üç farklı atık tipi esas alınmıştır.
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ÖgeProfile of priority substances and toxicity assessments of wastewater treatment plants in Istanbul(Graduate School, 2023-05-31) Birtek, Rahime İclal ; Öztürk, İzzet ; 501122704 ; Environmental Sciences, Engineering and ManagementWastewaters formed due to anthropogenic activities around urban areas pose a threat to aquatic environments. The growth in industrial activity along with the worldwide urban migration, as well as the threat posed by climate change, increase the extent of pollution. The discharge of the treated or untreated wastewaters is reported to cause a threat to their receiving water environments. Conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) are constructed to minimize the nutrient loads of macropollutants (C, N, and P) entering the receiving water bodies. As, removal of some of the emerging contaminants (ECs) or micropollutants present in wastewaters is found to be incomplete in conventional wastewater treatment processes, traces of those non-biodegradable ECs were reported to be found in the receiving environments. The presence of ECs, even in very low concentrations (pg/L - ng/L) in the water environments could cause adverse effects on humans and the ecosystem. In addition to industrial emissions, domestic discharges along with urban runoffs are main contributors of ECs in WWTPs. Understanding the presence, sources and transport of the micropollutants and ECs in wastewaters is important for assessing their impacts, and hence can help their reduction and management in the receiving environment. Micropollutants that have shown toxic, persistent, bioaccumulative, and ubiquitous properties and have been identified in aquatic environments, are designated as priority substances (PSs) by the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD). EU Member States are required to identify the presence of PSs in surface waters, in order not to exceed threshold levels specified by the Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) dictated by WFD. The Turkish Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs adopted the aforementioned quality standards for the PSs in surface waters in 2012, and updated them in 2016. Since WWTPs are known to be main point sources of ECs entering the receiving water bodies, investigating the occurrence of PSs in wastewaters of Istanbul has generated valuable information. This thesis aims at understanding the occurrences of PSs in the wastewaters of the megacity of Istanbul as well as assessing WWTP effluents as sources of PSs in receiving environments. The thesis also includes the acute toxicity assessment of the same wastewaters. The scope of the study includes the wastewaters of the seven largest WWTPs, a hospital wastewater and leachate of a landfill treatment plant in Istanbul. The results of the PSs analyses allowed estimation of risks posed by the PSs in the WWTP effluents. Lists were formed to PSs showing sufficient risk (RQ>1), and their inclusions are recommended in the surveillance monitoring programs for the effluents of advanced treatment, as well as mechanical treatment. The regulators undertaking environmental risk assessments in the initiation of monitoring programs for the protection of the Sea of Marmara, Bosphorus and the Black Sea may utilize the findings of this study. Chapter 2 provides general information on the background of the study that is related to the aim and objective of the study. Chapter 3 comprises of information regarding the study area as well as methods on the description of all the experiments conducted through this study, namely analyses of PSs, toxicity analyses and physiochemical analyses. Chapter 4 Results and Discussion, provides information on the results of the experiments conducted through this study (PSs analyses, toxicity analyses and physiochemical analyses), as well as discussion of those results. Chapter 5 provides a summary of the whole thesis. The References section includes the complete bibliography. The Appendix includes tables, figures and pictures.
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ÖgeRecovery of rare earth elements from waste and wastewater(Graduate School, 2021-12-14) Yüksekdağ, Ayşe ; Koyuncu, İsmail ; 501152710 ; Environmental Science Engineering and ManagementREEs is a group of elements comprising Lanthanides, Scandium, and Yttrium. These elements are used in many alloys, permanent magnets, wind turbines, defense industry products, magnetic resonance imaging systems, catalytic converters, mobile phones, computers, and so on. Due to their unique physical and chemical properties, these elements contribute to the development of many technological products due to their efficiency, size reduction, energy reduction, and superior chemical and physical stability. REEs are classified as LREEs (La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm) and HREEs (Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu, Y) according to their arrangement in the periodic table. Another classification method is based on the criticality of these elements and is as follows: Critical REEs (Nd, Eu, Tb, Dy, Er, Y), uncritical REEs (La, Pr, Sm, Gd), and excess REEs (Ce, Ho, Tm, Yb, Lu). These elements are also called "vitamins of modern industry" due to their unique properties. In the first stage of the thesis, a comprehensive literature review was prepared. Recovery of REEs and scandium from secondary sources under a circular economy framework was reviewed with a holistic approach. Moreover, the latest statistical data and studies have been summarized. 46 million tons of red mud was generated in the first four months of 2021 worldwide. In 2018, 750 million tons of thermal power plant fly ash were released in European Union member countries. Globally, over 53 million of e-waste was generated in 2019. These and many other types of waste need appropriate management, as they are large in quantity. On the other hand, they are valuable secondary resources due to their critical element content. Within the scope of the second chapter of the thesis, a total of 32 different samples containing (1) combustion residues, (2) mine wastes, (3) treatment sludges & sediments, (4) e-waste, and (5) various water, wastewater, and geothermal water were investigated. Then, REEs, scandium, and other critical, precious, and base element potentials were exhibited. According to the results obtained, Ce, La, Nd, and Y elements were found the most in the secondary sources obtained from Turkey, respectively. The highest total REEs concentration was found in thermal power plant fly ash and e-waste mixture. The waste with the highest content of critical rare earth elements was e-waste. For this reason, e-waste was chosen for recovery studies. In the third stage of the thesis, e-waste was crushed, ground, and sieved, respectively, and separated into size fractions. The effects of the particle size of the waste, the type of acid used, and the waste:acid ratio on the leaching of REEs were investigated. It was seen that the highest leaching efficiency was obtained from the smallest grain size. However, it was observed that the leaching efficiency decreased as the amount of e-waste used per unit volume of acid increased. The highest yield was obtained with aqua regia and the lowest waste:acid (5 mg/mL acid) ratio. In the fourth step, which is the last experimental part of the thesis, the separation of rare earth elements by membrane applications from e-waste leachate, prepared with nitric acid, was optimized using response surface methodology. In the first stage, e-waste leachate was pre-treated and concentrated in the nanofiltration process. This stage was optimized as a pretreatment pH of 1.5 and an NF operating pressure of 14.5 bar. In the second stage, the pre-treated leachate was fed directly to the supported liquid membrane process, which is a kind of membrane solvent extraction. Finally, the optimization studies were repeated by feeding the NF concentrated phase to the supported liquid membrane. Optimum operating conditions were found to be the same as for direct membrane solvent extraction (pH: 1.5 and D2EHPA concentration: 15%). An increase in the separation efficiency of HREEs and a decrease in the separation of LREEs were observed in the case of MSX with pre-concentration. In sum, HREEs could be separated with higher purity by applying NF concentration before membrane solvent extraction.
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ÖgeRecovery of water and chemicals from textile wastewater with ceramic membranes(Graduate School, 2021-12-17) Ağtaş, Meltem ; Koyuncu, İsmail ; 501142702 ; Environmental Sciences Engineering and ManagementDecreased water resources in our world necessitate the treatment and reuse of polluted water. Water recovery is of vital importance, both in terms of sustainability and economy, especially in industries that consume large amounts of water. One of the industries that consume a high amount of water is the textile industry. In the textile industry, 0.06-0.40 m3 water/kg product is used according to literature. In parallel with the amount of water used in the processes in the textile industry, a high amount of wastewater is generated. These wastewaters are known to contain high COD, different dyes, heavy metals, etc. For this reason, it is not possible to discharge these wastewaters into the environment without proper treatment. Many traditional methods for the treatment of textile wastewater such as coagulation flocculation, activated carbon adsorption, ozonation and biological treatment are used. However, these methods cannot meet strict discharge limits or are not economically viable. Therefore, membrane processes come to the fore in textile wastewater treatment since they are recommended for textile wastewater treatment in the BAT (Best Available Techniques) reference document. As a result of textile wastewater treatment with membrane processes, high-efficiency treatment is provided and the treated wastewater can have the potential to be reused. Polymeric membranes are generally preferred in treatment processes. However, since textile wastewaters have high temperatures and extreme pH values, the use of polymeric membranes is not suitable. The textile industry produces wastewater with temperatures that can go up to 90-95 °C. Generally, wastewater must be cooled down before membrane treatment. For efficient treatment, membranes have to be thermally stable; most polymeric membranes tend to degrade at high temperatures and therefore, they are not suitable for hot wastewater treatment.Therefore, the use of ceramic membranes in the treatment of textile wastewater is a viable method. Besides, when ceramic and polymeric membranes are compared, it can be said that ceramic membranes are having more advantageous in terms of high thermal, mechanical, and chemical stability, well-defined pore size distribution, and high flux. In this thesis, a comprehensive study was carried out on the pilot-scale water and chemical recovery using ceramic membranes from real textile wastewater and the development of halloysite nanotube doped membranes for the treatment and recovery of real textile wastewater. First, a pilot-scale ceramic ultrafiltration/nanofiltration system was operated for hot water recovery by treating real textile wastewater in a selected textile factory. Later, in the same facility, real textile wastewater with caustic content was used in order to make chemical recovery. Based on the successful results of these studies, after it was proven that water and chemical recovery can be made with ceramic membranes, halloysite nanoclay added membranes were produced in order to make this process more economical, and treatment trials were carried out with real wastewater from the same facility and important results were obtained.
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ÖgeTarım kaynaklı pestisitlerin SWAT ile havza ölçeğinde modellenmesi(Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, 2022-06-28) Doğan, Fatma Nihan ; Karpuzcu, Mahmut Ekrem ; 501152702 ; Çevre Bilimleri Mühendisliği ve YönetimiTarımsal kaynaklı yayılı kirleticiler özellikle tarım ilaçları, kontrolsüz ve aşırı kullanımlarından ötürü su kaynakları, doğa, insan ve diğer canlılar için tehlike oluşturmaktadır. Nüfus artışları ile birlikte tarım alanlarından maksimum verim alabilmek amacıyla gübre ve pestisitlerin kullanımı kaçınılmaz olmuştur. Piyasada farklı etken maddeli birçok pestisit çeşidinin olması ve bu pestisitlerin herhangi bir sınırlama olmaksızın satın alınıp kullanılabiliyor olması çevre için en büyük riski oluşturmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, İstanbul'da tarımsal faaliyetlerin yoğun yapıldığı Terkos Havzası ve drenaj alanındaki pestisit kirliliği karar destek sistemleri ile değerlendirilmiş, bu kirliliğin kontrolü ve giderimi için uygulanacak yöntemler belirlenmiştir. Terkos Havzası, İstanbul için en önemli ve görece en temiz içme suyu kaynaklarındandır. Diğer İstanbul havzalarına göre Terkos Havzası, yoğun orman alanları ve az şehirleşmesi ile daha bakir alanlara sahiptir. Fakat havzadaki Terkos Gölü rezervuarı ve gölü besleyen nehir ağlarının çok yakınında tarımsal faaliyetlerin yapılması, tarım alanlarından nehre ve dolayısıyla rezervuara pestisit taşınımına yol açmaktadır. Pestisit endüstrisinin gelişmesiyle, bitki zararlılarına karşı çok çeşitli yeni ilaçların üretilip kullanıması su kaynaklarındaki pestisit kirliliğinin kontrolünü zorlaştırmaktadır. Ayrıca şu an kullanımı yasak fakat geçmişte kullanılmış, tarım alanlarında depolanan bozunmaya karşı dirençli pestisitler de su kaynakları için büyük risk oluşturmaktadır. Tarımsal sürdürülebilirliği sağlayacak şekilde tarım ilaçlarının kullanımın kontrol altına alınması sadece su kaynaklarını korumak için değil gıdalardaki kalıntı pestisit miktarını azaltarak gıda güvenliğini sağlamak, sucul ekosistemin iyileştirmek ve insan sağlığına yönelik tehditlerin azaltmak için de gereklidir. Türkiye, Bütünleşik Havza Yönetimi anlayışını benimsemiş olup bu anlayış tarımsal kaynaklı kirleticilerin kontrolünü ve yönetimini içermektedir. Bu amaçla havza bazlı pestisit kullanımının ilk aşamasından su kaynaklarına ulaşana kadar tüm aşamalarında pestisit kirliliğinin yönetimine dair stratejiler geliştirilmelidir. Tarım ilaçlarının aşırı ve gereksiz kullanımını engelleyecek Entegre Pestisit Yönetimi, Zararlılarla Entegre Mücadele, Entegre Ürün Yönetimi, İyi Tarım Uygulamaları gibi yöntemlerin uygulanması pestisit kirliliğini kaynağında önlemeye yönelik faaliyetlerdir. Kullanılması muhtemel pestisitlerin izleme çalışmaları ile tespitinin yapılması ve bu kirleticilerin su ortamına ulaşana kadar uğradıkları dönüşümler ve izledikleri yolların karar destek sistemleri ile belirlenmesi ve En İyi Yönetim Uygulamaları (EİYU) olarak adlandırılan doğal arıtma yöntemleri ile pestisit kirliliğinin su kaynaklarına ulaşmadan kontrolünde önemli adımlardır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Terkos Havzası'nda tarımsal kaynaklı pestisitlerin su kaynaklarına etkisini tespit edebilmek, mevcut arazi kullanım şartlarında nasıl bir yol izlediklerini ve çevreye etkilerini bir karar destek sistemi olan SWAT (Soil Water Assessment Tool) modeli ile değerlendirmektir. Bu amaçla, öncelikle SWAT modeli yardımı ile havzanın su dengesi oluşturulmuş, hidrolojik modellemesi yapılmıştır. Hidrolojik modellemede havzaya ait topografik, arazi kullanımı ve iklimsel verilerin kullanılmasıyla havzanın su bütçesini çıkarılmış ve suyun havzadaki çevrimi tespit edilmiştir Hidrolojik modelleme, daha sonraki taşınım ve su kalitesi modellemesi için bir altlık görevi görmektedir. Hidrolojik modelin kalibrasyonu ve validasyonu sonunda, sediment ve pestisit taşınım ve akıbeti modellemesi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Pestisit taşınım ve akıbeti modelinin kalibrasyonu için havzadaki çeltik ve kuru tarımın yoğun olarak yapıldığı Karamandere'den numuneler alınmıştır. Pestisit modellemesi sonucunda, havzadaki kritik alanlar belirlenerek, bu bölgelere pestisit yükünü azaltmak amacıyla EİYU'lar eklenmiştir. EİYU'lar ile birlikte havzadaki pestisit kirliliğinin yönetimine dair yapılması gerekenler belirlenmiştir. Havzaya yapılan saha gezilerinde uzun yıllardır havzada tarım yapan çiftçiler, ziraii bayiler ve kalkınma kooperatifleri ile görüşülmüş, çeltik ve kuru tarım hakkında bilgiler edinilmiştir. Havzadaki durum su kaynakları, tarımsal faaliyet, orman habitatı, toprak korunumu, sosyal-ekonomik boyutuyla birlikte ele alınarak havzanın geleceğine dair görüş ve önerilerde bulunulmuştur.