LEE- Malzeme Bilimi ve Mühendisliği-Doktora
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ÖgeInvestigation of the growth kinetics and morphology transitions during porous anodization of titanium in ethylene glycol based electrolytes(Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, 2022) Seçkin, Eren ; Ürgen, Mustafa Kamil ; 725516 ; Malzeme Bilimi ve MühendisliğiTitanium dioxide (TiO2, titania) is a transition metal oxide that has been widely used as a pigment since the early 1900s. The discovery of the photocatalytic properties of the material has made it highly attractive for photovoltaics, photocatalysis, and sensor applications. Besides, titania-based materials have been increasingly employed in the biomaterials industry due to their chemical stability and bio-compatibility. Recently, the production and use of TiO2 nanomaterials has become popular. The high surface area and possible quantum effects of titania nanostructures have provided significant advantages over micro-size use. TiO2 nanotubes have attracted great interest among various titania nanostructures, and intensive research has been carried out on their production and use. Although the anodic formation of non-porous barrier oxide films on titanium has been known for decades, the discovery of self-organized nanoporous titania production by anodization in fluoride-containing electrolytes opened a new pathway; and numerous studies have been conducted on the subject. Preliminary studies on the nanoporous anodization of titanium concentrated on understanding the anodization reactions and controlling the process. Subsequent studies mainly focused on the fabrication of nanotube structures and their use in various applications. Recently, sophisticated studies such as advanced nanotube geometries and doped nanotubes have been prominent. However, the literature shows that the reproducible fabrication of titania nanotubes of desired length and morphology, in a well-ordered structure with a clean surface, is still a challenge. Although many different morphologies have been obtained during anodization, the influence of this morphological variance on nanotube growth has not been defined with a consistent model. One of the main reasons for this deficiency is the insufficient understanding of the anodization process, which reduces effective control over the process. The necessity of a clear understanding of the formation, growth kinetics, and morphological transformations of the nanotubes constituted the main reason for starting this thesis study. In the first part of experimental studies, investigation and optimization of the anodization parameters (surface condition, stirring, aging of the electrolyte, voltage, temperature, and time) were conducted by utilizing an ethylene glycol-based anodization electrolyte containing 0.6 wt % NH4F, 1 vol % H2O. The two-step anodization procedure was optimized to improve the pre-anodization surface. The high surface roughness of the untreated Ti foil could be reduced significantly by the optimized first anodization procedure with an anodization at 50 V and 30 °C for 180 min and subsequent removal of the anodized layer. In the anodization studies carried out under different stirring rates (0 to 1000 rpm), it was observed that the stirring rate has a strong effect on the morphology. The barrier oxide film on the sample surface disintegrated faster as the stirring rate during anodization increased. It was attributed to the increase in the chemical dissolution rate due to increased agitation. In addition, it was revealed that the increase in stirring rate facilitates effective temperature control. Experimental studies on the aging and reuse of the anodization electrolyte have shown that current density behavior and morphology can vary significantly depending on the condition of the electrolyte. As the fluoride is consumed by forming water-soluble [TiF6]2- species and be solvated during anodization, the amount of free fluorine in the electrolyte gradually decreases. It was experimentally verified that the current density values shift down, and the chemical dissolving power of the electrolyte decreases in anodization conducted after extended usage or short but repetitive usage of the anodization electrolyte. However, it has also been shown that when the electrolyte is kept unused overnight after anodization, almost equivalent current density values and morphological results can be obtained as the anodization performed the previous day. We estimate that when the electrolyte is kept unused for a convenient duration after anodization, [TiF6]2- species decompose into TiF3, releasing three fluorides (for each molecule); thus, the amount of free fluoride in the electrolyte increases again. In studies examining the effects of anodization voltage and temperature on growth and morphology, it was verified that an increase in either parameter results in an increase in current density and hence an increase in growth rate. In addition, the increase in either parameter affects the morphology by accelerating the chemical dissolution. It was demonstrated that although the voltage has a slight effect on the dissolving power of the electrolyte, the temperature has a strong effect and the chemical dissolution in the electrolyte increases strongly with increasing temperature. A series of experiments were conducted to observe the effects of the anodization duration on the surface morphology. Three morphologies were obtained in the anodization experiments conducted at 50 V and 30 °C for different durations (5 min to 40 min). For 5 min and 10 min anodized samples, barrier oxide morphology, for 20 min anodized sample open-top nanotube morphology, and 40 min anodized sample nanograss morphologywere obtained. It was deduced that the surface morphology during anodization progresses in order of barrier layer, open nanotubes, and nanograss structure, showing that these morphologies are successive processes. Anodization experiments conducted at 50 V and 25 °C for different durations confirmed that the surface morphology changes in the suggested order. It was revealed that there is a correlation between the temperature and the dissolution time of the barrier oxide, which formed the basis of the proposed kinetic model. Additionally, ultrasonication and stripping with scotch tape methods were studied for clearing the sample surface from barrier layer residues and so-formed nanograss. In the second part of experimental studies, the formation and growth kinetics of the titania nanotubes were investigated by utilizing an ethylene glycol-based anodization electrolyte containing 0.3 wt % NH4F, 1 vol % H2O. A model, combining growth with morphology, has been proposed by utilizing the findings obtained in the first part. According to this model, growth is divided into three stages (I. Growth under initial barrier layer, II. Nanopore to nanotube transition, III. Nanograss formation). Stage 1 is defined as the period which includes initial barrier oxide formation, pore initiation, and nanotube growth under gradually dissolving initial barrier oxide. Formation studies conducted at 50 V and 25 °C for different durations (5 sec to 30 sec) demonstrated that ordered nanotubular formation under initial barrier oxide occurs in the early periods of the anodization. We determined that the field-assisted growth of the nanotubes occurs at a constant rate (µm C-1 cm2) at the bottom, under the gradually dissolving and still protective initial barrier oxide layer. Titanium samples were anodized at 25 °C for different durations (20 min and 80 min) remaining in Stage 1 to determine field-assisted growth rate. In both anodized samples average growth rate of ~0.7 µm C-1 cm2 was obtained. It was experimentally observed that the total dissolution time of the initial barrier oxide layer during anodization performed at 25 °C was within the range of 100 – 150 min. We have defined Stage 2 as the short period after the initial barrier oxide layer is wholly dissolved in which open tube top ordered nanotubes are seen, and nanopore/nanotube transition occurs. As Stage 2 is the sudden transition phase between Stage 1 and Stage 3, it was ignored in the kinetic calculations. Stage 3 is defined as the period for the chemical dissolution of the tube tops and the initiation and progress of nanograss formation. In this part, the nanotube film's growth and the film's shortening are examined together. Field-assisted growth continues at the bottom with the same efficiency and rate (per coulomb) (µm C-1 cm2) as it is in Stage 1. However, the simultaneous shortening of the tubes due to chemical dissolution occurs at the top at a constant rate (per time) (nm min-1). A kinetic model has been proposed to determine the persistence time of this top barrier layer. According to model, the chemical shortening rate of the nanotubes due to chemical dissolution is determined experimentally by using two different anodization durations remaining in Stage 3, which allows us to calculate the barrier oxide dissolution time (BDT). Barrier oxide dissolution times for 25 °C and 5 °C was calculated as 130.1 min and 414.1 min, respectively, and verified experimentally by anodization conducted for the corresponding BDT values. The dissolution of the top barrier layer is a chemical process, and its activation energy can be calculated using the experimentally determined parameters that allows us to determine the temperature dependence of BDT. By utilizing 25 °C and 5 °C anodization data and taking BDT-1 as the rate constant, the activation energy equivalent to 9.53 kcal mol-1 was obtained for the process. Additional experiments conducted at 35 °C, 15 °C, and -5 °C by using the theoretically calculated BDT values confirmed the model's validity. These calculations and experiments verified that temperature dependence of the barrier oxide dissolution time (BDT) shows Arrhenius-like behavior. Besides controlling the final morphology, it is shown that the plot of nanotube thickness that corresponds to BDT at different temperatures indicates a linear relation; and open-top nanotubes ranging from 6.8 µm to 10.4 µm can be obtained by tuning anodization temperature and duration according to this model. To summarize, this model gives the opportunity to tailor titania nanotube thickness (within a specific range) and desired nanotube morphology (barrier top, open tube top, or nanograss) by tuning anodization temperature and duration according to the proposed model.