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ÖgeDynamo generation of neutron star magnetic fields(ITU Graduate School, 2025-06-25)Neutron stars are very dense objects with a radius of 10-12 km, and a mass of a few solar masses. Like most of the celestial bodies, they are magnetized with dipole (poloidal) field strength of $B_{\rm p} \sim 10^{12}$ G, and toroidal field strength of $B_\phi \sim 10^{14}$~G. Magnetars, on the other hand, are known as the most magnetized objects in the Universe with field strengths of $B_{\rm p} \sim 10^{14}$ G and $B_\phi \gtrsim 10^{15}$ G. Thus, the origin of neutron stars' magnetic fields became a discussion with the identification of magnetars. Two ideas are considered as the possible origin of the magnetic fields of neutron stars. One of them is the fossil-field hypothesis, which states that neutron stars inherit their magnetic fields from their progenitors, since the magnetic flux is conserved during the core collapse. In this scenario, there is no new field generation; the seed field grows as the radius shrinks, with $B \propto R^{-2}$. The other idea that is considered as the source of the magnetic fields of neutron stars is a dynamo process, which states that the magnetic fields of neutron stars are generated inside the proto-neutron star by the fluid motions. However, studies show that the number of progenitors with strong magnetic fields is much lower than the number of known magnetars (30). Let us consider a collapsing core with a radius of 3000 km where the magnetic field strength is approximately $5\times10^5$ G in the surrounding medium. After the collapse, only a magnetic field of $3\times 10^9$ G will be inherited by a proto-neutron star with a radius of 40 km, by only the magnetic flux conservation. When this proto-neutron star shrinks to a neutron star with a radius of 12 km, the neutron star will inherit a magnetic field of $\sim10^{10}$~G by flux conservation. This field strength is approximately 2 orders of magnitude smaller than the magnetic fields of standard neutron stars. However, this field strength is of the order of the dipole magnetic fields of central compact objects. Therefore, although the flux conservation is widely accepted as the source of the magnetic fields in some populations, it is not enough to explain the magnetic fields of neutron stars, especially the field strengths at magnetar levels. Thus, it became clear that there must be another mechanism that generates magnetic fields at those levels. A dynamo process operating inside the proto-neutron star is now the most promising scenario for the generation of neutron star magnetic fields. Two main types of dynamo mechanisms are the $\alpha^2$ and $\alpha-\Omega$ dynamos. Just after the core collapse, hydrodynamic instabilities operate inside the star, and these instabilities create convective motions. In an $\alpha^2$ dynamo, toroidal and poloidal fields generate each other by only convective motions, which is called the $\alpha$-effect. On the other hand, different parts inside the star rotate with different angular velocities, which is the well-known differential rotation. This differential rotation plays a key role in generating strong magnetic fields in an $\alpha-\Omega$ dynamo. In this type of dynamo, when convective motions generate poloidal field by lifting and twisting the toroidal field lines (the $\alpha$-effect), differential rotation generates toroidal field shearing the poloidal field lines, which is known as the $\Omega$-effect. Due to the absence of strong effect of the differential rotation, $\alpha^2$ dynamos generate relatively weak fields compared to $\alpha-\Omega$ dynamos. Thus, an $\alpha-\Omega$ dynamo is the most accepted mechanism for the generation of magnetar fields. Studies demonstrate that magnetic field strengths of even $\gtrsim 10^{15}$ G can be achieved by an $\alpha-\Omega$ dynamo. Therefore, in this study, the field generation at neutron star levels is investigated by an $\alpha-\Omega$ dynamo. In this study, a 1-dimensional $\alpha-\Omega$ dynamo model, which is first proposed for white dwarf fields is adopted to proto-neutron stars, adding the shrinkage of the radius, accordingly, loss of mass, and the flux conservation. Moreover, two viscous processes are involved in the model. One of them is the viscosity due to magneto-rotational instability. Magneto-rotational instability is a dynamical instability that arises from the electrically conducting and differentially rotating fluids in the presence of a weak magnetic field. This instability generates turbulence, which creates this type of viscosity. The other viscous process is the convective viscosity, which is created by convective motions. Dynamo processes are studied with several 2 and 3-dimensional models. However, these models can not be studied with realistic parameters. With this 1-dimensional model, a dynamo process is examined with realistic parameters. In the study, the model equations are solved with Runge-Kutta method, and it is seen that the field components grow in time and get saturated at the end of the dynamo process (approximately 50 s), as expected. Both of the saturation values of the fields are at the magnetar levels. Thus, this study demonstrates that the magnetar fields can be generated by an $\alpha-\Omega$ dynamo which operates inside a proto-neutron star. On the other hand, examinations for proto-neutron stars with relatively long rotational periods are conducted, and results demonstrate that magnetic fields at levels of standard pulsars, high-field pulsars and low-field magnetars can be achieved for slow rotations. With this result, it is evident that the fast rotation of the proto-neutron star plays a key role in the generation of magnetic fields of magnetars in dynamo processes. This is consistent with the studies which indicate that relatively slower rotations generate weaker fields. Moreover, results show that as the poloidal fields of central compact objects ($B_{\rm p}\sim 10^{10}$~G) are inherited from the progenitor star by flux conservation, their toroidal fields are amplified by the $\Omega$-effect. This is an interesting result which indicates that central compact objects can experience a dynamo process in which the $\alpha$-effect is ineffective. Additionally, with this 1-dimensional model, the impacts of the parameters on the results are also investigated, which is not possible with 2 or 3-dimensional models.
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ÖgeInvestigation of thermal conduction in microcontacts created by indentation(Graduate School, 2022)Thermal contact conduction has been investigated on different scales for many practical and scientific motivations in the literature. Demands for engineering the interfaces are increasing for accurately managing the contact mechanics and heat transfer with miniaturization of the electronics devices. In this study, microcontacts, that are created by indentation, have been investigated with experimental, simulation, and analytical works. The spreading resistance perspective of the disc constriction case has been extended for the studied highly plastic microcontacts of indentation. Creating the microcontacts and investigating the conductance through them had been realized by indentation of metallic surfaces by specially prepared diamond micro-particles/indenters. Thermal measurements had been realized by mounting thin thermocouples on diamond tips. The experimental setup is home-built with commercial piezo, motor, DAQ utilities, and other miscellaneous devices. PC User Interface and Intercessor Microcontroller Unit had been programmed to properly manage to conduct experiments. Furthermore, to measure the resistance, we employed an oscillatory experimental procedure and lumped analysis of transient heat transfer. The application of oscillations at different indentation depths has enabled us to extract the RC behavior of the microcontacts created by high plastic deformation. Therefore, the time constant of the contacts can be obtained. Additionally, we could find an effective measure of the thermal diffusivity of the contact through the diamond tip by fitting the change of time constant to depth with the proposed modified constriction models. Moreover, to analyze and predict the change of the time constant with respect to depth and load, several simulations and calculation work had been pursued. The increase in the contact area by indenter penetration into the sample has been concerned to be suppressed by gradient occurrence along the tip-sample contact. Moreover, with help of the simulations, we deduced the effect of plasticity such as pile-up on the improvement of the indentation contact for the heat transfer can be effective. Consequently, for the first time, we conducted the periodic contact procedure for the thermal contact of single micro asperity of indentation. The periodic experimental procedure and fin efficiency application to spreading cases for single microcontact are unique parts of this work. Results with the diamond tip on three different metallic samples showed that the gradient occurrence along the indentation contact can be analyzed with the fin solutions of the literature. Experimental results were fitted properly to a unified function of conic fin and spreading resistance functions. In addition, parameters of the fits can be deduced for the conductivity and interface conductance. However, state of the results are not sufficient to exactly determine the contact and material parameters due to need for exact parameters for transient analysis and, uncertainties in the properties of the tip and samples. With help of more precise thermal measurements and indenter systems, this experimental procedure may provide further advances and ease in the investigation of the thermal contacts of many different materials and scales. In addition, for the solid-state thermal interface materials solutions, we deduce that investigation of the geometry optimization for pressure and heat transfer as indicated in this thesis would provide insights into the bottlenecks of the contact heat transfer. Specifically, the gradient occurrence and its effectivity on the overall contact heat transfer should be taken into account for the indentation contacts while improving the contact by plasticity.
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ÖgeNewtonian perturbation theory in cosmology: From inflation to large-scale structure(Graduate School, 2025-01-28)Cosmology is the scientific study of the physical characteristics of the universe, its beginning, development and organization, based on observational outcomes and theoretical foundations. The Lambda-CDM model is currently one of the most popular theories in cosmology. This model of the universe outlines the behavior of the cosmos through the use of dark matter and energy. The cosmological constant (dark energy) is an energy density used to describe the acceleration of the expansion of the universe. From this model, it can be seen that cold dark matter and dark energy contribute greatly to the total mass-energy density of the universe. While dark matter affects the dynamics of galaxies and large-scale structures, dark energy drives the accelerated expansion of the universe. However, ongoing problems led to the formulation of "inflation theory." Inflation theory is a convincing paradigm that solves fundamental questions like the flatness problem and the horizon problem, which ask why the universe appears nearly flat and why distant parts show similar properties. Inflation hypothesis argues that the universe had a rapid expansion during its formative period, which mitigated initial anomalies and established the foundational conditions for the world we observe today. Numerous mathematical models have been introduced to advance inflation theory, including scalar field inflation, Starobinsky inflation, and Higgs inflation, which explain the dynamics of early expansion and the transformation of primordial perturbations into extensive cosmic structures. We also need observational evidence from the early cosmos to prove these theoretical hypotheses. The cosmic microwave background (CMB) and large-scale structure (LSS) are two of the most critical. CMB is described as the conditions immediately after the Big Bang and gives us a perspective on what the early universe was like, while Large Scale Structure (LSS) refers to the general arrangement of galaxies and matter throughout cosmic history. To form these structures one has to consider both the observation of them and the processes by which they are formed. The growth of cosmic structures is mainly due to gravitational collapse, which amplifies small density perturbations in the early universe. This process is also understood by using Newtonian perturbation theory, which is a useful approach to describing how early anisotropies evolve into the large scale structures we see today. The concepts of Jeans length, growth function, transfer function and power spectrum are useful tools to study the evolution of structures and distribution of matter and to generate theoretical data to compare with experimental data. However, the examination of nonlinear evolution show that the creation of xxi structures has a more complex background. Different theoretical instruments have been used to analyze this complicated structure. The spherical collapse model elucidates the evolution of overdense regions into stable entities like galaxies and galaxy clusters, whereas the idea of virialization delineates the equilibrium state of these structures, especially dark matter halos. Moreover, the Press-Schechter theory offers a statistical framework for elucidating the creation of cosmic formations. This theory provides an analytical approach to assess the mass distribution of collapsed entities. The mass function forecasts the probability of structure formation across various masses, whereas biasing delineates the correlation between observable galaxies and the fundamental density field. Comprehending the genesis and evolution of the universe necessitates a comprehensive methodology that integrates theoretical, observational, and statistical analyses. Newtonian perturbation theory is a crucial instrument for examining large-scale structures, with its validity corroborated by empirical evidence and simulations.
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ÖgeTransition dynamic in the LSCDM model: Implications for bound cosmic structures(Graduate School, 2024-06-27)We explore the predictions of $\Lambda_{\rm s}$CDM, a novel framework suggesting a rapid anti-de Sitter (AdS) to de Sitter (dS) vacua transition in the late Universe, on bound cosmic structures. In its simplest version, $\Lambda_{\rm s}$ abruptly switches sign from negative to positive, attaining its present-day value at a redshift of ${z_\dagger\sim 2}$ i.e., $\Lambda_{\rm s} \equiv \Lambda{\rm sgn}(z_{\dagger}-z)$. We will show that in the case of an abrupt sign-switching cosmological constant, there occurs a type II (sudden) singularity at the transition redshift, $z_{\dagger}$, where the total pressure of the universe diverges to infinity and the total energy density remains constant and finite. To avoid type II singularity, one can ``smooth-out'' the sudden sign-switch and describe it by using sigmoid functions (e.g., $\tanh$, logistic). However, since this correction would introduce an additional parameter ($\sigma$) to the model, we decided to examine the scenario in which the sign change of the cosmological constant is abrupt. This will also allow us to study the behavior of structure formation in the most extreme case without adding an extra parameter to our analysis. We will start our analysis by studying the spherical collapse model for a universe that contains dust (consisting of cold dark matter and baryons) and cosmological constant ($\Lambda$). For this universe, we will derive the equations describing the dynamics of the overdensity as a function of the background universe. Due to the shell crossing---and consequently the breakdown of the homogeneity and isotropy after the turnaround---, one cannot use the Friedmann equations (i.e., spherical collapse model) to describe the dynamics of the overdensity. Thus, we must refer to the semi-Newtonian approach and use the virialization condition to describe its dynamics. In the next step, we will extend our analysis of the spherical collapse model to include $\Lambda_{\rm s}$CDM, by incorporating the sign-switching cosmological constant ($\Lambda_{\rm s}$) into our calculations. To understand this process more clearly, we will separate our discussion into three parts. In the first part, we will study the evolution of the overdensity, if it enters turnaround under the effect of the positive cosmological constant (i.e., $\Lambda_{\rm s} \equiv +\Lambda$). In the second part, we will discuss the dynamics of the overdensity, if it enters turnaround under the effect of the negative cosmological constant (i.e., $\Lambda_{\rm s} \equiv -\Lambda$). In the third and final part, we will discuss the halos that completely virializes before the AdS-dS transition, and study the effect of the type II singularity on the bounded cosmic structures. At a first glance, it's clear that depending on the time of the transition, the overdensity will be effected differently. In summary, we can identify three primary influences which effects the structure formation in the $\Lambda_{\rm s}$CDM model: (i) the negative cosmological constant (AdS) phase for $z > z_\dagger$, (ii) the abrupt transition marked by a type II (sudden) singularity, leading to a sudden increase in the universe's expansion rate at $z=z_\dagger$, and (iii) an increased expansion rate in the late universe under a positive cosmological constant for $z < z_\dagger$, compared to $\Lambda$CDM. We find that the virialization process of cosmic structures, and consequently their matter overdensity, varies depending on whether the AdS-dS transition precedes or follows the turnaround. Specifically, structures virialize with either increased or reduced matter overdensity compared to the Planck/$\Lambda$CDM model, contingent on the timing of the transition. Despite its profound nature, the singularity exerts only relatively weak effects on such systems, thereby reinforcing the model's viability in this context.
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ÖgeMEMS ile entegre mikro ısıtıcı ve IDE mikro sistemlerin fabrikasyonu ve nano kompozit yarı iletken gaz sensör uygulaması(Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, 2024-08-05)Günümüzde Mikro Elektro Mekanik Sistemler (MEMS) teknolojisi ile mikro ısıtıcı sistemlerin inter dijital elektrotlar (IDE) ile entegrasyonunun geliştirilmesine yönelik ihtiyaç gün be gün artmaktadır. MEMS teknolojisi, mikroskopik ölçekte mekanik ve elektronik bileşenlerin entegrasyonunu içerir. Mikrosistem mühendisliği, elektronik, kimya, biyoloji ve fizik gibi birçok farklı disiplini birleştirir. Bu entegrasyon, daha karmaşık sistemlerin ve uygulamaların geliştirilmesini mümkün kılar. Örneğin, kimyasal algılama için kullanılan sensörler, biyolojik materyallerle birleştirilerek hastalık tespitinde kullanılabilir. Bu tür çok disiplinli çalışmalar, araştırma ve geliştirme süreçlerini zenginleştirir ve bilim ile mühendislik arasındaki sınırları aşarak yenilikçi çözümler üretir. Bu teknoloji, yüksek hassasiyet ve düşük maliyet avantajları ile öne çıkarak, biyomedikal uygulamalar, tüketici elektroniği gibi bir çok alanda kullanılmaktadır. MEMS teknolojisinde kullanılan gaz sensörleri, endüstriyel süreçlerin kontrolü, hava kalitesinin izlenmesi, çevresel güvenlik ve tıbbi teshişler için hayati öneme sahip alanlarda kritik rolller üstlenmektedir. Özellikle, endüstriyel ve çevresel uygulamalarda zararlı gazların tespit edilmesi, halk sağlığı ve güvenliği açısından büyük öneme sahiptir. Bu nedenle, düşük maliyetli, yüksek duyarlılık ve hızlı yanıt süresine sahip gaz sensörlerine duyulan ihtiyaç büyüktür. Bu sensörler biyomedikal uygulamalarda, solunum yolu hastalılarının teşhisinde öneme sahip uçucu organik biyo belirteçlerin (VOC) tespitiden kanser tipine kadar geniş bir kullanım alanına sahiptir. Bu çalışmada tek bir silikon yonganın üzerine ince film biriktirme yöntemlerinde kullanılan; çok katlı foto-litografi, PVD (e-beam), PECVD, elektrokimyasal yöntemler, üst üste entegrasyon, ICP-RIE kuru aşındırma, metalizasyon gibi yöntemler kullanılarak bir çok uygulama alanında kullanılabilir platformlar üretilmiştir. Üretilen platformun çalışıp çalışmadığının kontrolü için gaz sensör uygulaması seçilmiştir. İlgili malzemelerin sentez, katkılama ve platform üzerine kaplanması için hidro termal ve damlatma metodları ile gaz sensörleri üretimi başarılı bir şekilde gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışma sonucunda 2.2 mm en ve 4.8 mm boy oranlarına sahip, 300 µm Si-yonga üzerine çok katlı (2 µm SiO2 / 30 nm Ti / 30 nm Au / 600 nm Pt ) mikro ısıtıcı sistemleler üretilerek, 1 dakikada max 417℃ sıcaklığa yükselen platin mikro ısıtıcılar üretilmiştir. Platin mikro ısıtıcıların sıcaklık karakterizasyonları için hem kendi oluşturduğumuz devre hem de termal kamera ile ölçümler yapılmıştır. Ölçüm sonuçlarından, sıcaklık değişimine karşı direnç değişim grafiğinden platin metali için α sabiti 0.00345 ℃-1 olarak hesaplanmıştır. Üst üste biriktirme teknolojisi sayesinde 250 nm kalınlığında Si3N4 pasivasyon malzemesi kullanılarak ve üretilen mikro ısıtıcıların 200℃ ve 400℃ de 2 saat tavlama işlemi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çok katmanlı xxvi (100 nm Ti / 100 nm Au) IDE'lerin üretimi ve Si3N4 ara katman üzerine entegrasyonu gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu platform için 4 çıkışlı 2 si mikro ısıtıcı, 2 si IDE sistem çıkışlı bakır PCB'ler üzerine ilk olarak mikro ısıtıcı sistemlerin ısı kaybını önlemek için 2 mm en ve 2 mm boya sahip 300 µm kalınlığında Si-yonga (wafer) takoz kesimi gerçekleştirilip üst üste yapıştırılmıştır, ardından tel bağlama (wire bonder) tekniği ile 25 µm Au teller ile bond işlemleri gerçekleştirilmişitir. Gaz sensör uygulaması için elektro aktif polimer ve metal oksitler kullanılmıştır. PANI, SnO2 malzelemelerin sentez kısımları gerçekleştirilmiş (PANI için emeraldin baz yalıtkan formu HCl ile muamele edilerek iletken hale getirilmiştir) ve ticari olarak satılan ZnO malzemesi ile 1:1 mg ve 1:5 mg gibi farklı oranlarında PANI, PANI / SnO2, PANI / ZnO nano kompozit metal oksit 3 tip gaz sensörleri üretilmiştir. Bu gaz sensörleri ile gaz sensör uygulamasının; endüstriyel süreçlerin kontrolü, hava kalitesinin izlenmesi, çevresel güvenlik için öneme sahip NO2 gazı ve solunum yolu hastalıkları için öneme sahip olan aseton, etanol, nem ve kloroform gazlarının akım-zaman yanıt grafikleri MATLAB kodu geliştirilerek analiz edilmiştir. Tüm sensörlerin saf gazlara karşı ve bu saf gazların %30, %50, %70 neme maruz bırakılmış konsantrasyonları için, oda sıcaklığında ve 55℃ sıcaklıkta ölçümler alınarak bar grafikleri elde edilmiştir. Platin metali için α sabiti 0.00345 ℃-1 olarak hesaplanması çok katmanlı mikro ısıtıcı sistemlerin doğru bir biçimde geliştirildiği, 2 mm – 2 mm (en-boy) oranlarındaki takozların sisteme yapıştırılması ısı kaybını önlemiştir ve max 417℃ sıcaklık elde edilmiştir. Üretilen 3 sensör tipinin çalışır durumda olduğu ölçüm sisteminden alınan verilerin MATLAB analizi ile çalışır durumda olduğu tespit edilmiştir.
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