Analysis of e-bike charging station locations: Case of Kadıköy, Istanbul

Abstract

With the Industrial Revolution in the 19th century, the population of cities increased rapidly and their physical areas expanded. In the last quarter of the 19th century, the invention of the automobile and the increase in its affordability with the developing technology led to an increase in automobile ownership in the 20th century. The rapidly increasing use of fossil fuels in production and transportation has created a world far from sustainable globally. In this context, environmental movements that found a common language in the 1960s started and the concept of sustainability was put forward by the Brundtland Commission in 1987. Cities are dominant living spaces. In order to achieve global sustainability goals, cities must be sustainable. For this reason, world cities have started to work toward being sustainable cities by developing policies and action plans since the Brundtland Commission.Today, the most up-to-date and valid sustainability efforts are the C40 union on a local scale and the Paris Agreement on a global scale. C40 cities aim to reach the carbon-zero city target by 2030, while the Paris Agreement aims to keep the global average temperature rise below 2°C compared to the pre-industrial period and to reach the carbon-zero European Continent target by 2050. According to studies in 2019, 27% of the total carbon emissions in Europe originate from the transportation sector (EEA, 2021a). In addition, 72% of transportation-related emissions originate from road transportation (EEA, 2021b). In this case, it is necessary to create a sustainable transportation system to achieve sustainability goals at the urban and global scale.According to studies in 2017, 16,1% of total carbon emissions in Turkey originate from transportation. Furthermore, 93% of transportation-related emissions originate from road transportation (ÇŞB, 2017). As one of the countries that signed the Paris Agreement, Turkey needs to update its policies and increase its efforts to allocate sustainable transportation. According to studies in 2015, 28% of total carbon emissions in Istanbul originate from transportation. Moreover, 98% of transportation-related emissions originate from road transport (IMM, 2015a). It is essential that Istanbul, one of the C40 cities and the most populous city in Turkey, allocates a sustainable urban transportation system. Sustainable transportation aims to meet the need for access without harming the human and ecological values of today and the future. One of the basic principles of sustainable transportation is meeting the mobility demand with public transit, pedestrian transportation, and micromobility units by reducing the private car share in transportation. Cycling is also among the sustainable modes of transportation, and it is a unique tool that contributes to the environment, economy, and health and allows social interaction. The bicycle, invented at the beginning of the 19th century, has been one of the main actors of transportation in the historical process, then lost its popularity with the automobile and became popular again with sustainable transportation targets. Electric bicycles (e-bikes) were invented at the end of the 19th century, and with the developing battery technology, they have increased their market share in the world, especially in the 21st century. E-bikes are expected to reach 130 million by 2025 and 800 million by 2100 (Morchin and Oman, 2006a; Hung and Lim, 2020). Another factor in the popularization of E-bikes is that it is an individual vehicle that combines the advantages of automobiles and bicycles. The batteries of e-bikes can be used for up to 5 years when charged with appropriate methods. Charging the battery up to 95% after each trip is recommended to increase battery life. During the journey that will end at home, people will be able to charge their e-bikes at home. However, this situation reveals the need to charge e-bikes during trips that end in public spaces. Facility location problem is a widely studied subject in private and public sector investments. Facility locations are long-term and strategic decisions, and choosing suitable locations is extremely important. Although e-bike charging stations (EBCS) are implemented in many cities worldwide, it has not yet been discussed as a facility layout problem in the literature. The number of e-bikes in Istanbul is deficient compared to European cities, and it is not possible to conduct a study by determining the need according to the supply-demand balance. The average range of the produced e-bikes is 35 km (Morchin and Oman, 2006a) and the average trip distance with electric bicycles is 9-10 km (ÇŞB, 2021). In this case, it cannot be said that range is a primary constraint for e-bikes. For charging stations to be located in public areas, a relationship between electric bicycles and urban functions and infrastructure elements should be established. An analytical method should be adopted by determining the criteria that will affect the location selection. Since no similar study has been found in the literature for EBCS, the criteria affecting the location selection for electric vehicle charging stations (EVCS), bicycle sharing system (BSS) stations, and bicycle parking structures are examined within the scope of the study. In addition, local laws and regulations are examined and constraints are revealed. Based on these studies, criteria that will affect the determination of the locations of EBCS are determined. Within the scope of the study, the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), which has the advantage of qualitative and quantitative evaluation, which is one of the Multiple-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) methods, is used. It is aimed to determine the weights of the criteria by AHP and determine the most suitable locations by Geographic Information Systems (GIS). A total of 75 experts from Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (IMM), academia, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), companies, Ministry of Transport and Infrastructure, and Union of Municipalities of Marmara participated in the expert survey prepared to determine the weight of the criteria that affect the determination of EBCS locations at the district scale. The analysis's prominent urban functions and infrastructure elements are rail systems, existing protected bicycle roads, parking lots, bus rapid transit (BRT), parks and green areas, and water transportation. Kadıköy district is chosen as the study area. The fact that Kadıköy is the district with the highest rate of bicycle use (EMBARQ Turkey, 2015) and that those who first accepted and started riding bicycles in the historical process were those living in Kadıköy (Ceylan, 2020) are among the factors in the selection of Kadıköy as the case area. At the same time, Kadıköy is a district with high mobility due to its location on the Anatolian side and diversity of transportation infrastructure. The presence of many functions such as residential, commercial, business centers, and universities in the district both increases the mobility within the district and causes it to attract a lot of population from outside the district. The district is also a center of attraction with its green areas, cultural functions, and variety of cafes/restaurants. It has the characteristics of a medium-sized European city with its diversity of functions, an area of 25,20 km2 (Kadıköy Municipality, 2022), and a population of 481 983 people (TÜİK, 2022). A study to be carried out in Kadıköy will also be a guide for medium-sized cities. According to the criteria determined within the scope of the study, the data of Kadıköy are created with the help of GIS. Kadıköy is examined according to criteria and weights by creating 1x1 km grids. In the analysis, C2 and C1 grids are determined as the priority application area. The common features of these areas are that they contain more than one type of public transportation and attract visitors both from within and outside the district with their functions. C2 and C1 grids with the highest scores are analyzed in more detail within the scope of the study. Since there is no study in the literature on the walking distance to EBCS, studies on other bicycle infrastructures are examined. In the literature, it has been stated that the maximum walking distance to bicycle parking structures is 100 m, but this distance can be increased if safety is increased and different functions are added. It is also stated that the walking distance for shared bikes is 300 m and a person's walking tolerance is 300 m to access bike. Within the scope of this information, a radius of 100 m as the primary service area, a radius of 200 m as a secondary service area, and a radius of 300 m as a tertiary service area are determined for EBCS. The analysis of C2 and C1 grids aims to include the high-weight criteria in the primary service area. At the same time, proximity to public buildings is taken into account to make easier the connection to the urban electricity infrastructure system. Public property areas are chosen to reduce costs and make implementation easier. In this context, a location that primarily serves the rail system, BRT, green area, parking lot, and bus functions are determined for the C2 grid. At the designated location, the station will benefit from the electrical system of the rail system and BRT, and the land is in public ownership. For the C1 grid, a location primarily serves the rail system, water transportation, green space, parking lot, and bus functions are determined. At the designated location, the station will be able to use the library's electrical system and the land is in public ownership. At the same time, it is important that the determined locations are related to the road and are visible. The study is carried out to determine the locations of EBCS, which are a bicycle infrastructure element. When the main urban functions and infrastructures are examined, it can be said that supporting these locations with other bicycle infrastructures such as bicycle sharing systems, bicycle parking structures, repair stations, and bicycle roads is essential in increasing the share of bicycle transportation. Within the scope of the study, it is aimed to determine the locations of EBCS in public spaces. In addition, EBCS should be implemented in residential parking lots, business centers, and shopping centers. Moreover, bicycle transportation should be supported with parking structures.