LEE- Jeoloji Mühendisliği Lisansüstü Programı
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ÖgeUnconventional gas system characteristics and depositional environment modeling of silurian mudstones: Central Taurides and western Pontides, Turkey(Graduate School, 2021-03-16) Döner, Zeynep ; Kumral, Mustafa ; 505132309 ; Geological Engineering ; Jeoloji MühendisliğiThe increasing global demand for energy has made it imperative to explore and exploit unconventional oil and gas resources. An investigation of new resources has become mandatory for countries like Turkey with very limited supplies of conventional oil and natural gas. Silurian (generated 9% of the world's reserves) is one of the six anoxic stratigraphic intervals that more than 90 % of the original recoverable oil and gas reserves in the world have been generated from source rocks. In this context, Silurian mudstones from central Taurides and western Pontides can be evaluated one of the alternative unconventional gas resources. This study focus on evaluating the unconventional gas/oil system characteristics of Silurian mudstones in central Taurides and western Pontides, in a comparative way with each other and making a comparison with world shale basins, in terms of the mineralogical constituents & lithofacies, geochemical modeling of depositional environment, organic geochemical characteristics, reconstruction of original hydrocarbon generative potential, and petrophysical properties to evaluate reservoir quality, covering the theoretical understanding of assessment for shale plays evaluation and the discussing of the content of each property. In this study, it is adopted that the terms of both "shale" and "mudstone" in lithologic description and in the general discussion of the play type according to shale gas reservoir description of various researchers. This work uses outcrop samples which can be considered as a hybrid system where organic-rich and organic-lean intervals were juxtaposed, that could be grouped into three rock types: siliceous, carbonate-dominated, and mixed mudstones. The central Taurides and western Pontides mudstones were located in passive margin of tectonic setting. Geochemical data of major and trace elements obtained for a total 39 of central Taurides and 19 of western Pontides' outcrop samples were interpreted to determine the depositional model, water column productivity, and preservation conditions. Several redox indicators, such as V systematics (V/Sc, V/Ni) as well as ratios of Ni/Co, Th/U and Mo/Mn, showed that the organic-rich mixed mudstones were deposited in suboxic to anoxic environments, as opposed to oxic-dysoxic conditions for organic-lean ones in central Taurides. In western Pontides, organic-rich mixed mudstones were deposited oxic-dysoxic conditions, and organic-lean mudstones were deposited in an oxidizing conditions. However, organic matter enrichment is not restrained by water column productivity, as indicated by a lack of correlation between total organic carbon (TOC) and productivity indexes (P/Ti and Ba/Al), but rather probably controlled by dysoxic-anoxic water column environment. In addition, a detrital material input cannot be ignored for its influence on organic matter enrichment in the mudstone deposition for both areas. The increase in the clastic fluxes probably resulted from the deposition in the extended shelf with coastal upwelling. A lack of correlation between K2O, Al2O3, SiO2 and TOC contents among these mudstones imply that clay minerals may not influence organic matter preservation. According to w(La)N/w(Yb)N and ΣREE values, a high sedimentation rate is determined during the central Taurides and western Pontides mudstone deposition, which would result in a dilution of organic matter. Furthermore, slight marine influences with sulphur limitation and low salinity, semi-arid/warm to humid-warm climatic conditions are widespread, according to total sulphur (TS), Sr/Ba, Sr/Cu, chemical index of alteration (CIA), C-value and related discrimination diagrams. In the end, a depositional models of the central Taurides and western Pontides' mudstones are established to display an excellent preservation condition as the major controlling factor for organic matter enrichment in the Silurian mudstones. In addition, this study used a range of integrated and complementary experiments to examine pore-structure, fluid-shale wetting characteristics, sample size-dependent porosity towards different fluids, and imbibition behavior, as well as the relationships between these properties of Silurian mudstones in the central Taurides and western Pontides. Working with different sample-sizes, the experiments consisted of helium pycnometry (HP), low-pressure nitrogen physisorption (LNP) isotherm, mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP), fluid immersion porosimetry (FIP), liquid displacement (LD), fluid droplet wettability and contact angle measurements, and spontaneous imbibition of fluids; four fluids with different hydrophilicity [deionized (DI) water, API brine (8% NaCl and 2% CaCl2 by weight), 2DT (n-decane:toluene, v/v of 2:1), THF (tetrahydrofuran, (CH2)4O)] were used to assess the characteristics of fluid-shale interaction and its influence on pore-structure. Siliceous and mixed mudstones for both areas have higher porosities, pore-throat diameters, and surface areas than the carbonate-dominated mudstones, regardless of sample sizes and fluids used. Central Taurides' siliceous and mixed mudstones have H3 type slit- or plate-like pores for central Taurides, while all type of mudstones for western Pontides have H4 type slit-like pores. Furthermore, the tortuosities of siliceous and mixed mudstone samples for both areas are higher than carbonate-dominated mudstones, which suggests that migration pathways for fluids within the former samples will be more complex. With low permeabilities and medium pore-throat sizes for the siliceous and mixed mudstones, the wettability and imbibition results show that central Taurides and western Pontides' mudstones are both oil-wet and moderately-to-high water-wet. In contrast, the carbonate-dominated mudstones exhibit moderately-to-highly oil-wet characteristics. These results indicate that studied siliceous and mixed mudstones in the central Taurides and western Pontides seem to have appropriate petrophysical properties in the context of reservoir quality. The central Taurides and western Pontides' Silurian mixed mudstones can be considered as targeted zone for shale gas. These mixed mudstones in both areas were originally a Type II oil/gas prone marine mudstone. The present-day total organic carbon (TOCpd) contents range from 0.56 to 4.06 wt.% for central Taurides and from 0.68 to 1.57 wt. % for western Pontides, suggesting that moderate shale gas storage potential. The central Taurides and western Pontides mudstones have lost 97% and 95% for their original hydrocarbon potentials, seems to be a spent hydrocarbon source rock, indicating good risk for gas. The original TOCo content of studied mudstones range from 0.88 to 6.34 wt.% (average of 2.35 wt.%) and 1.06-2.45 wt.% (average of 1.70 wt.%), respectively. In addition, these targeted zones for both areas are in the overly mature stage / dry gas window, based on graptolite, chitinozoan reflectences and equivalent vitrinite reflectances, S2/S3 ratios, illite/chlorite crystallinity indices and sharpness ratios. It should be specified that Tmax was affected by low S2 values for both areas, resulting in unreliable Tmax estimates. In the gas window, TOC reduced approximately 36%, but the remaining potential and hydrogen index are reduced by over 90%, indicative of a high degree of conversion of organic matter to hydrocarbons and a carbonaceous residue. The ratio of organic porosity to total porosity in organic matter were determined as 26.5% for central Taurides and 26.7% for western Pontides, indicating that mudstones with high quartz and carbonate contents appear to be more resistant to the collapse of organic pores related to burial compaction, hydrocarbon generation, and expulsion than those with high content of clay mineral, as in central Taurides and western Pontides mudstones. However, these mudstones originally may have good to very good source rock potential, according to calculated original potential yields (S1o+S2o values ranging from 7.89 to 55.1 mg HC/g TOC and from 9.44-21.3 mg HC/g TOC, respectively). The amounts of hydrocarbons will be produced by the system in potential areas were calculated as 2.90 ×1013 kg HC for central Taurides and 5.64 ×1012 kg HC for western Pontides. Moreover, the targeted zone for both areas have a significant silica content (average of 44% for central Taurides and 37% for western Pontides) with calcite minerals, are generally >30%. Clay minerals are mainly illite and chlorite, which are non-swelling clays, and have <30% contents. The permeabilities of studied mudstones in both areas are low and the porosities are moderate to high which are <15%. The fractal dimensions and brittleness values of studied mudstones indicate that these mudstones have a suitable interval for hydraulic stimulation and the hydro-fracturing would be needed for viable hydrocarbon production for both areas and will escalate the flow of hydrocarbon more efficiently. Although the characteristics of central Taurides and western Pontides' mudstones seems to be nearly compatible with data of Ordovician Utica Shale in North America that can be commercially exploited in terms of the hydrocarbon generative potential (based on the GOC, TOCpd and S2o values), but it is possible that the source rock is very deep and deformed from the past to the present day, considering the paleogeographical location and geological evolution of the study areas. The measurements conducted and results achieved in this research thus could contribute to the understanding on these mudstone formations in north and south Turkey and greatly add to what is known from other published data. Nevertheless, more detailed investigations are necessary.